Effects of fragmented habitat and fire on the distribution and ecology of the swamp antechinus (Antechinus minimus maritimus) in the Eastern Otways, Victoria

This study investigated the distribution, habitat and population dynamics of the swamp antechinus (Antechinus minimus maritimus) in the eastern Otway Ranges. The species has a restricted, disjunct distribution and has been recorded at 25 sites between 1969 and 1999. All sites were located within 7 km of the coast, occurred at altitudes up to 80 m above sea level and within 10 m of a gully. Analysis of landscape site variables identified sun index as being significant in determination of the probability of occurrence of A. minimus. The presence of A. minimus is negatively associated with sun index, occuring at sites that have a southerly aspect and gentle slope. A. minimus was located in a range of structural vegetation including Open Forest, Low Woodland, Shrubland and Hummock Grassland and a number of floristic groups, some characterised by high frequencies of sclerophyll shrubs, others by high frequencies of Pteridium esculentum, hummock grasses and herbaceous species. A. minimus occurs in fragmented, small populations with maximum population densities of 1.1–18 ha^–1. Populations at inland sites became extinct after the 1983 wildfire which burnt 41 000 ha. These sites have not been recolonised since, while on the coast the species did not re-establish until 1993–97. One population that is restricted to a narrow coastal strip of habitat is characterised by high levels of transient animals. The species is subject to extinction in the region due to habitat fragmentation, coastal developments and fire. Management actions to secure the present populations and ensure long-term survival of the species in the area are required and include implementation of appropriate fire regimes, prevention of habitat fragmentation, revegetation of habitat, and establishment of corridor habitat.

The influence of time since fire and distance from fire boundary on the distribution and abundance of arboreal marsupials in Eucalyptus regnans-dominated forest in the Central Highlands of Victoria

The impact of time since fire after two consecutive wildfires 44 years apart (1939 and 1983) within the same area, and the distance from the fire boundary «100 m or 500-2000 m), were investigated in relation to the distribution and abundance of arboreal marsupials in 1994. Arboreal marsupials were censused by stagwatching and spotlighting in two relatively young age classes of mountain ash (Eucalyptus regnans) dominated forest in the Central Highlands of Victoria. Five species of arboreal marsupial were detected, but only three were detected in sufficient numbers to determine habitat preferences. Petauroides volans (greater glider) was statistically more abundant in 1939 regrowth forests, while Trichosurus caninus (mountain brushtail possum) showed no significant preference for either age class of forest. All but one record of Gymnobelideus leadbeateri (Leadbeater's possum) came from young forest, though the effect of age-class was not statistically significant. Distance from fire boundary explained little or no variation in mammal distribution or abundance. While the actual number of hollow-bearing trees was similar in both age classes of forest, the long-term lifespan of hollow-bearing trees in more recently burnt forest is predicted to be lower than in unburnt or not recently burnt forest. Post-fire salvage logging following the 1983 wildfires appears to have reduced the number of hollow-bearing trees at sites burnt in 1983.

The origins of formal collusion in Australian fire insurance 1870-1920

The market for insurance has become increasingly competitive in recent years. However, it has not always been so. At the end of the nineteenth century, it was characterized by a highly concentrated and tightly controlled oligopolistic market structure. As such, the history of the fire insurance industry provides an interesting case study in the development of collusive behaviour amongst firms. Up to 1897, pricing agreements among firms were generally short-lived, and were followed by periods of intense competition. After this point, an agreement was forged, which proved very resilient to market pressures and formed the basis of premium rate setting until the 1970s. This paper investigates the difference between this agreement and previous efforts to set premium rates, and points to some of the common features of the later compact, which explain its longevity.

The impact of grazing by eastern grey kangaroos (macropus giganteus) on vegetation recovery after fire at Reef Hills regional park, Victoria

In southeastern Australia ecological burning is frequently used to maintain a number of plant and animal populations. However, many of these prescribed fires are small, and may focus intense grazing activity on new regrowth. At Reef Hills Regional Park, Victoria shrub species have senesced, presumably due to the absence of fire. Ecological burning may be necessary to promote regeneration, however, the population density of the Eastern Grey Kangaroo (Macropus giganteus) is high (approx 38 per km2), and grazing pressure presents a significant risk to postfire vegetation recovery. An assessment of grazing patterns and their effects on postfire recovery was carried out at Reef Hills Regional Park through grazing exclusion plots. Preferential grazing by Eastern Grey Kangaroos occurred on small burnt plots compared to adjacent unburnt areas as determined by faecal pellet counts. On burnt areas, there was a significant reduction in shrub diversity on grazed plots compared to ungrazed plots. Most observations of kangaroos were of animals grazing on farmland surrounding the Park, and it is likely that any burning might shift grazing from farmland to burnt areas when new growth occurs. This needs to be considered before any ecological burn plan is applied to manage vegetation communities, particularly if the plan requires small areas to be burnt. We recommended that a large area up to 200 ha area be burnt and monitored to determine whether burning larger areas disperses grazing pressure from macropods to a level where impacts on vegetation are reduced and localized plant extinctions do not occur.

On the edge: how well do fire mitigation strategies work on the urban fringe?

The reduction of loss of lives and assets during bushfire is one of the primary aims or lire management agencies. Traditional fire mitigation strategies include strategic fire hreaks, static water points, management of ignition sources, rapid detection and local response, air attack, and fuel reduction burning. There have been few quantitative studies that assess the success or these strategies. We need to promote 'new' strategies more focused on human hehaviour and community preparedness.
DeJcndable space provides our best strategy for reducing losses during major bushfires. The size or the defendable space depends on the type of house to be defended, who is defending it, and the spatial context of the property. In the urban fi'inge, remnant vegetation on private property often has
high conservation values, and application of traditional mitigation strategies, as well as the vegetation modification required to achieve defendable space, may have significant impacts on conservation and biodiversity values.

Fire safety training: its importance in enhancing fire safety knowledge and response to fire

Fire-related accidents often result in injuries and sometimes death, which can be prevented through fire safety training. To estimate the extent to which fire safety training should be provided, it is essential to assess the current level of fire safety knowledge within the general community. Thus the objectives of the present study were to explore: (a) the level of fire safety knowledge among people of different age groups and investigate its relationship to the level of fire safety training, and (b) the manner in which people from different age groups would respond to a fire based on their fire safety training. Data from 158 participants aged between 18 and 80 years showed that fire safety training increases: (a) the level of fire safety knowledge and, (b) the accuracy of response to a fire. The results also show that middle-aged individuals would respond more accurately to a fire than younger and older adults. The findings demonstrate the importance of fire safety training in enhancing people's fire safety knowledge and their response in the event of a fire which could lead to a reduction in the rate of fire casualties. There are implications for incorporating fire safety training as part of health improvement programs to reduce the number of fire-related injuries and fatalities.

Effect of fire on Benthic Algal Assemblage structure and recolonisation in intermittent streams

Dry biofilm on rocks and other substrata forms an important drought refuge for benthic algae in intermittent streams following the cessation of flow. This dry biofilm is potentially susceptible to disturbance from bushfires, including direct burning and/or scorching and damage from radiant heat, particularly when streams are dry. Therefore, damage to dry biofilms by fire has the potential to influence algal recolonization and assemblage structure in intermittent streams following commencement of flow. The influence of fire on benthic algal assemblages and recolonization was examined in intermittent streams of the Grampians National Park, Victoria, Australia, using a field survey and manipulative field experiment. The field survey compared assemblages in two intermittent streams within a recently burnt area (within 5 months of the fire) with two intermittent streams within an unburnt area. The two burnt streams were still flowing during the fire so most biofilms were not likely to be directly exposed to flames. Considerable site-to-site and stream-to-stream variation was detected during the field survey, which may have obscured potential differences attributable to indirect effects of the fire. The manipulative field experiment occurred in two intermittent streams and consisted of five treatments chosen to replicate various characteristics of bushfires that may influence dry biofilms: dry biofilm exposed directly to fire; dry biofilm exposed to radiant heat; dry biofilm exposed to ash; and two procedural controls. After exposure to the different treatments, rocks were replaced in the streams and algae were sampled 7 days after flow commenced. Differences occurred across treatments, but treatment differences were inconsistent across the two streams. For example, direct exposure to fire reduced the abundance of recolonizing algae and altered assemblage structure in both streams, while radiant heat had an effect on assemblage structure in one stream only. The manipulative field experiment is likely to have represented the intensity of a small bushfire only. Nonetheless, significant differences across treatments were detected, so these experimental results suggest that fire can damage dry biofilms, and hence, influence algal recolonization and assemblage structure in intermittent streams.

Applications of cognitive theories to children's fire safety education

Children under five have the highest rate of fire-related accidents (Australian Institute of Health and Welfare, 2001). It is therefore essential to develop effective fire safety education programs to prevent casualties due to a fire. At present, there are fire education programs conducted across Australia for primary school children. However, it is vital that these programs get their message across to the children in the most efficient manner to help children retain the information. The present study evaluated the effectiveness of the 'Fire Ed' program conducted in Victoria and assessed the retention of fire safety information in children in preparatory and Grade five levels. The findings suggest that the information is not retained over long periods of time. Suggestions are made to provide fire safety education in line with
theories of cognitive development to make it more effective.

Effectiveness of fire safety education in primary school children

Young children have been identified as a high-risk group in relation to fire-related deaths because of their limited ability to understand the intinsic dangers of fire, to foresee the consequences of playing with fire, or to manage a fire if it were to become out of control.  Children are also not equipped to respond in a meaningful way in the event of a fire.  It is therefore essential that fire safety education be imparted to children in an effective manner so as to equip them to deal with a fire efficiently.  The objective of the present study was to evaluate the 'Fire Ed' program conducted by the Melbourne Metropolitan Fire Brigade for primary school children to determine whether exposure to the curriculum will influence children's knowledge of fire safety behaviours.  Although the program has numerous positive features, its overall effectivenedd has not been evaluated.  It was hypothesised that: a) children will not be aware of essential fire safety information prior to attending the 'Fire Ed' program, and b) children will display a significant gain in fire safety knowledge after participation in the program.  Sixty children from six primary schools participated in the study and they were tested on their level of fire safety knowledge prior to and after partcipation in the 'Fire Ed' program.  Results show that the children's knowledge of fire safety procedures improved significantly after participation in the program when tested after three weeks, however, when their knowledge was examined after five weeks, a significant decline was seen.  The findings show that regular evaluations of fire safety programs are required and that they could be improved by considering the different stages of cognitive development in children.

Is a contained fire less risky than a going fire? Career and volunteer firefighters

Since fighting fires can pose a great risk to the lives of firefighters, it is important to understand how they perceive risks in dynamic wildfire situations. The aim of the current study was to determine whether career and volunteer firefighters differ in their perception of the risk of a going vs. contained fire and whether descriptions of a fire as either going or contained affected perceptions of risk. It was expected that career firefighters would rate a contained fire as significantly riskier than would volunteer firefighters. The sample consisted of 55 career and 84 volunteer CFA Victorian firefighters (134 males and 5 females). An ambiguous wildfire scenario was presented and described as either going or contained and risk ratings were recorded. Two-way ANOVA results showed that career firefighters rated a going fire as equally risky as a contained fire. On the other hand, volunteer firefighters perceived a fire described as contained to be significantly less risky than a fire described as going, despite the fact that the same fireground conditions were described in both cases. It was concluded that a framing effect had occurred and that career firefighters demonstrated a higher level of situation awareness than volunteer firefighters due to their heightened levels of risk perception when exposed to contained wildfire scenarios. A practical implication of the current research is that those conducting firefighting briefings need to be aware of possible framing effects in the way information is presented to firefighters and need to ensure that all briefings make risks cognitively salient to firefighters.

Fire fighters' assessments of fireground risk

Fire fighters are often required to work in dynamic and hazardous environments involving a high level of uncertainty. The present study investigated 110 volunteer fire fighters’ assessments of levels of risk associated with a photographic depiction of a typical grassland fire situation. The fire fighters used a standard fire agency risk-rating matrix procedure requiring them to specify the severity of the hazards depicted and the probability of a mishap in order to rate overall level of risk (1 = Low; 4 = Extreme). The risk ratings made by the fire fighters varied greatly. The overall rate of agreement with the risk level rating of the situation made by a panel of expert fire officers (=1, Low) was only 27%. It seems that use of a standard risk-rating matrix procedure by fire fighters at incidents, as recommended currently by many fire agencies, is likely to result in unreliable risk assessments, at least in the absence of effective training in the risk assessment procedure. The 110 volunteers were also asked to identify the total number of potential hazards apparent in five photographs depicting different kinds of emergency incidents. Identifying more hazards was found to be associated with (a) previous personal experience of a ‘near-miss’; and (b) higher levels of education. The findings imply that when faced with identical fire ground situations, individual fire fighters are likely to differ in their situational awareness of hazards and consequent risk assessments.