Mental health and life satisfaction of young Australians : the role of family background

This paper uses the Household, Income and Labour Dynamics in Australia Survey to investigate the factors that influence young Australians’ mental health and life satisfaction, with an emphasis upon the role of family background. It also explores male and female differences concerning those background effects. The results indicate a particularly significant negative association between parental divorce and well-being, and suggest that the timing of divorce matters. Distinguishing the samples by gender shows that this relationship remains significant only for females. Past living arrangements consistently turn out to be statistically insignificant whether the sample used is the total, males or females. The current living arrangements, however, appear to be significantly associated with both mental health and life satisfaction of males. Adding potentially confounding characteristics to our basic regression, which includes only the family background variables, suggests that some of the ‘aggregate’ effects of family background might work indirectly through the mediating variables such as education or lifestyles, though most of them remain direct. Among those, marital status, education, labour market experience and lifestyles seem to be the major factors explaining the dispersion in well-being of young Australians. Income and wealth, on the other hand, have only a minor impact.

Child maltreatment, family characteristics and adult adjustment: mediating and moderating processes

Two alternate processes that may explain the relationship between child maltreatment, childhood family characteristics and adult adjustment (mediation and moderation) were tested using retrospective data from a community sample (N = 175). The levels of five different types of child maltreatment did not mediate the relationship between childhood family variables and adult adjustment. In contrast, family background played a mediating role in the relationship between maltreatment and adjustment. Evidence of moderation was found in the interactions between different maltreatment types in predicting adjustment. Partial support was found for the moderating influence of family factors on the relationship of maltreatment to adjustment.

Gay men from heterosexual marriages : attitudes, behaviors, childhood experiences and reasons for marriage

In the current study, the attitudes, behaviors and experiences of 26 gay or bisexual men who were married to a woman are examined. Data are provided on childhood family background and experiences, sexual practices with men, reasons for entering marriage, and the “coming out” process. The frequency of childhood sexual experiences was associated with unsafe sexual practices with other men in adulthood. Attitudes toward lesbians and gay men were more negative now than at the time of marriage. The two most frequent reasons for marriage were that it seemed natural, and a desire for children and family life. The results support the hypothesis that internalised homophobia is a factor that leads men into mixed-orientation marriages. Cognitive consistency theory is used to explain the eventual marriage breakdown.

Is domestic violence learned? The contribution of five forms of child maltreatment to men's violence and adjustment

On the basis of a learning-theory approach to the intergenerational transmission of violence, researchers have focused almost exclusively on violent men's childhood experiences of physical abuse and witnessing family violence. Little consideration has been given to the coexistence of other forms of child maltreatment or the role of family dysfunction in contributing to violence. This study shows the relationships between the level of child maltreatment (physical abuse, psychological maltreatment, sexual abuse, neglect, and witnessing family violence), childhood family characteristics, current alcohol abuse, trauma symptomatology, and the level of physical and psychological spouse abuse perpetrated by 36 men with a history of perpetrating domestic violence who had attended counseling. As hypothesized, a high degree of overlap between risk factors was found. Child maltreatment, low family cohesion and adaptability, and alcohol abuse was significantly associated with frequency of physical spouse abuse and trauma symptomatology scores, but not psychological spouse abuse. Rather than physical abuse or witnessing family violence, childhood neglect uniquely predicted the level of physical spouse abuse. Witnessing family violence (but not physical abuse) was found to have a unique association with psychological spouse abuse and trauma symptomatology. These results present a challenge to the understanding of domestic violence obtained from learning theory.

Women's work. Maintaining a healthy body weight

This study describes women's perceptions of the supports and barriers to maintaining a healthy weight among currently healthy weight women from urban and rural socio-economically disadvantaged areas. Using focus groups and interviews, we asked women about their experiences of maintaining a healthy weight. Overwhelmingly, women described their healthy weight practices in terms of concepts related to work and management. The theme of ‘managing health’ comprised issues of managing multiple responsibilities, time, and emotions associated with healthy practices. Rural women faced particular difficulties in accessing supports at a practical level (for example, lack of childcare) and due to the gendered roles they enacted in caring for others. Family background (in particular, mothers’ attitudes to food and weight) also appeared to influence perceptions about healthy weight maintenance. In the context of global increases in the prevalence of obesity, the value of initiatives aimed at supporting healthy weight women to maintain their weight should not be under-estimated. Such initiatives need to work within the social and personal constraints that women face in maintaining good health.

Multi-type maltreatment : relationships between familial characteristics, maltreatment and adjustment of children and adults

This thesis examines the nature, extent and impact of multiple forms of maltreatment (multi-type maltreatment) from within a developmental victimological framework. The interrelationships between sexual abuse, physical abuse, psychological maltreatment, neglect, and witnessing family violence are assessed. The role of family variables in predicting maltreatment and the relative contribution of child maltreatment and family variables to adjustment are evaluated. Risk factors for multi-type maltreatment, and the relationship between multi-type maltreatment and adjustment are explored. The major theories of child development are reviewed. As well as exploring the relevance of developmental theories to understanding the impact of child maltreatment, factors influencing the emergence of child psychopathology are reviewed from a developmental psychopathology perspective. Ecological and developmental perspectives on how child maltreatment translates into the behavioural and emotional adjustment problems of children are integrated in the Child Maltreatment: Risk and Protection Model. After exploring some of the relevant conceptual issues, the literature on the prevalence and impact of each maltreatment type is reviewed, and the literature on multi-type maltreatment critiqued. Methodological and ethical concerns with the conduct of research in the field of child maltreatment using direct assessment of children led to the need for an instrument to assess parent perceptions of each of the types of abuse and neglect, as well as adult retrospective reports. Data are presented from two cross-sectional questionnaire-based studies using the Parent and Adult versions of the Family and Life Experiences Questionnaire which was designed to assess perceptions of children's experiences of sexual abuse, physical abuse, psychological maltreatment, neglect and witnessing family violence. Problems with the isolated focus of research on single forms of child maltreatment are addressed by the inclusion of each of these forms of child maltreatment within a single research design. Respondents for both studies were volunteers recruited from counselling agencies, medical, community health, child care and fitness centres and a first year psychology course. Parents (N=50) described their perceptions of primary school children's family characteristics, experiences of maltreatment and adjustment. Children's behavioural adjustment (internalising and externalising), sexual behaviours, emotions, self-esteem, gender identity, family adaptability and cohesion, parental traditionality, parental sexual punitiveness, interparental relationship satisfaction, and demographic characteristics are assessed in the study of Parents' perceptions. A large degree of overlap between the different types of abuse and neglect was found, with a high proportion of parents describing children's experiences of multiple forms of child maltreatment. Using both maltreatment and family characteristics to predict internalising behaviour problems, neglect and family cohesion were the only unique predictors. Family adaptability and cohesion were the only unique predictors of externalising behaviour problems. Physical and sexual abuse were not predicted from family characteristics; neglect was predicted, but no variables provided unique prediction. Unique predictors of psychological maltreatment were family cohesion, parental sexual punitiveness and divorce. Divorce was the only variable with significant unique prediction of the child witnessing family violence. Family background and family functioning were found to predict some forms of maltreatment, but to also be important factors mediating the adjustment of children, independent of maltreatment. The results are interpreted within an ecological framework, integrating risk factors for maltreatment with experiences of abuse and neglect and subsequent adjustment in childhood. Retrospective reports of adults' (N=175) own childhood family characteristics, experiences of maltreatment, and reports of their current adjustment are also studied. Included with the adult version of the FLEQ were the Trauma Symptom Checklist-40, Rosenberg's Self-esteem Scale, and the Family and Adaptability and Cohesion Evaluation Scale-II. Similar results were found in the in the Adult Study. As hypothesised, adult retrospective reports of the five different types of child maltreatment were found to be highly intercorrelated. Family characteristics predicted maltreatment and adjustment scores and discriminated between single and multi-type maltreatment. Maltreatment scores also predicted adult adjustment. As the number of maltreatment types increased, there was an increase in the number of adjustment problems reported. Alternate hypotheses regarding the possible operation of mediating and moderating processes in the relationships between family characteristics, maltreatment and the adjustment of adults were assessed. Finally, the results of these investigations are discussed and interpreted in the light of extant findings previously reviewed. Data from the two major empirical studies are used to demonstrate the overlap between different child maltreatment categories, and the extent and impact of multi-type maltreatment. The results show that children are vulnerable to more than one type of maltreatment. Individuals who experience a number of different forms of maltreatment had greater adjustment problems than those experiencing only one or two different types of abuse or neglect. Dysfunctional families place children at risk of child maltreatment. Negative family characteristics lead to adjustment problems in children and adults. The type of maltreatment having the most damaging effect on children was neglect, and in the long-term, sexual abuse. A multi-dimensional approach to prevention and intervention needs to be adopted, based on the co-morbidity of maltreatment types, and the likelihood of children experiencing further abuse or neglect of a different type. Dysfunctional family dynamics which place children at risk of multi-type maltreatment, and mediate the effects of maltreatment on adjustment, need to be specifically targeted with support and family intervention strategies. Risk-assessment measures used by Child Protection workers must include adequate knowledge of the inter-relationships between maltreatment types, and the particularly negative impact on adjustment of experiencing many forms of abuse or neglect. Suggestions for future clinical and research work in the area of child maltreatment are developed. The importance of assessing all forms of maltreatment when examining the relationships of maltreatment to adjustment is emphasised. It is recommended that prevention and intervention strategies acknowledge the interrelationships between maltreatment types.

Student attitudes toward professional practices in science

There has been anecdotal evidence that students from various cultures have different perspectives toward professional practices, including (1) how to use quotations, (2) occupational health and safety and (3) recording data, but there has been a lack of hard evidence to either confirm or contradict this belief. This paper presents a snapshot of student attitudes toward professional practices in Australia. The survey group consisted of students enrolled in an undergraduate 1st year, 2nd semester, chemistry subject. Students generally agreed that they should paraphrase and should cite sources of information. However, there was confusion about the use of extensive quotations and occupational health and safety. There was no significant difference in the responses by the country of secondary schooling or family background, but were some significant differences by the respondents’ age, number of years in university and by the discipline area of study.

Tackling disadvantage through student-centred learning - exploring 'Worlds of Work' in the Melbourne CBD

As the educational landscape increasingly mirrors deepening socio-economic cleavages within Australian society, the disparity in educational outcomes has been identified as one of the biggest challenges confronting secondary schooling. In contrast with most OECD countries, family background remains the most important determinant of educational achievement in Australia. More and more, schools are defined by location, reinforcing what has been dubbed the 'circular pattern of disadvantage'. At the same time, recognition of strong links between outcomes, socio economic status and location has elicited growing calls for systematic redefining of learning experiences and the public education framework. Focus on flexible, rigorous, community-oriented, person-centred learning opportunities has predicated multiple mentoring and youth schemes and has guided policy. Recognition of the need to re-engage Year 9 and 10 students underpinned development of VELS, for instance; it has also directed the programming priorities of Education Foundation Australia (EFA). This paper will discuss first, how schools perceive the programs have made a difference to both individual students and the curriculum offered in the schools, and second, how the experiences and activities provided through the program have changed the expectations and aspirations that many of the participants have in regard to how they perceive their future, their engagement with school and their careers. Both City Centre and Worlds of Work (WOW) program have received a very positive student response to real world activities that have demonstrably enhanced the development of reflective processes, interpersonal and social skills and social networks. Practical outcomes have included self-organised work experience, the development of mentor relationships and the re-engagement of some students with the schooling process. Interview data confirmed EFA's assessment that its programs have greatest impact when integrated into a school's curriculum rather than as "stand alone" electives.

Personal, family, social, and environmental correlates of active commuting to school

Background: Active commuting to school may be an important opportunity for children to accumulate adequate physical activity for improved cardiovascular risk factors, enhanced bone health, and psychosocial well-being. The purpose of this study was to examine personal, family, social, and environmental correlates of active commuting to school among children. Methods: Cross-sectional study of 235 children aged 5 to 6 years and 677 children aged 10 to 12 years from 19 elementary schools in Melbourne, Australia. Self-administered questionnaires were completed by parents, and the older children. The shortest possible routes to school were examined using a geographic information system. Results: Among both age groups, negative correlates of active commuting to school included parental perception of few other children in the neighborhood and no lights or crossings for their child to use, and an objectively assessed busy road barrier en route to school. In younger children, an objectively assessed steep incline en route to school was negatively associated with walking or cycling to school. Good connectivity en route to school was negatively associated with walking or cycling to school among older children. Among both age groups, children were more likely to actively commute to school if their route was <800 meters. There were no associations with perceived energy levels or enjoyment of physical activity, weight status, or family factors. Conclusions: For children, creating child-friendly communities and providing skills to safely negotiate the environment may be important. Environmental correlates of active transport in children and adults may differ and warrant further investigation.

Children's television viewing and objectively measured physical activity: associations with family circumstances

Background: The contribution of family circumstance to physical activity and television viewing has not been widely investigated in pre-adolescents, and available information is inconsistent. This study examines whether television viewing and objectively measured physical activity vary by different indicators of family circumstance.
Methods: Data from the 2001 Children's Leisure Activity Study and the 2002/3 Health, Eating and Play Study, involving Australian children in Grades Prep (mean age 6y) and 5–6 (mean age 11y), were combined. Children wore accelerometers for six consecutive 24 hour periods. Average min/day in low-intensity activity (1.0–1.9 METs) and moderate-to-vigorous-intensity activity (≥3 METs) were calculated. Parents reported children's television viewing and family circumstance. Linear regression analyses were conducted separately for young girls, young boys, older girls and older boys. Results: Complete data were available for 2458 children. Parental education and, to a lesser extent, employment level were inversely associated with television viewing. Children in single-parent families, those whose fathers were not in paid employment, and those without siblings tended to spend more time in low-intensity activity than their peers. Children with siblings spent more time in moderate-to-vigorous-intensity activity; associations were stronger for girls. Maternal education was positively associated with moderate-to-vigorous-intensity activity for younger children. Maternal employment was positively associated with moderate-to-vigorous-intensity activity for older children. Multivariable models did not demonstrate a cumulative explanatory effect.
Conclusion:  Individual measures of family circumstance were differentially associated with television, low-intensity activity and moderate-to-vigorous-intensity activity and associations were often not consistent across age-by-gender groups. Interventions may need to be tailored accordingly.

Family food environment and dietary behaviors likely to promote fatness in 5-6 year-old children

Background: The family food environment (FFE) is likely to exert important influences on young children's eating. Examination of multiple aspects of the FFE may provide useful insights regarding which of these might most effectively be targeted to prevent childhood obesity.

Objective: To assess the associations between the FFE and a range of obesity-promoting dietary behaviors in 5–6-year-old children.

Design: Cross-sectional study.

Subjects: Five hundred and sixty families sampled from three socio-economically distinct areas.

Measurements: Predictors included parental perceptions of their child's diet, food availability, child feeding practices, parental modeling of eating and food preparation and television (TV) exposure. Dietary outcomes included energy intake, vegetable, sweet snack, savory snack and high-energy (non-dairy) fluid consumption.

Results: Multiple linear regression analyses, adjusted for all other predictor variables and maternal education, showed that several aspects of the FFE were associated with dietary outcomes likely to promote fatness in 5–6-year-old children. For example, increased TV viewing time was associated with increased index of energy intake, increased sweet snack and high-energy drink consumption, and deceased vegetable intake. In addition, parent's increased confidence in the adequacy of their child's diet was associated with increased consumption of sweet and savory snacks and decreased vegetable consumption. 

Conclusion:  This study substantially extends previous research in the area, providing important insights with which to guide family-based obesity prevention strategies.

Revising the critical care family needs inventory for the emergency department

Background: The Critical Care Family Needs Inventory (CCFNI) has been used widely over the last two decades for analysing the needs of family members in the intensive care unit. However, it has significant limitations as a needs assessment tool for use with families in the Emergency Department (ED). This paper discusses the methodological challenges encountered during the process of reviewing and adapting this tool for use in the ED. Aims: The purpose of this study was to revise and adapt the CCFNI for use with a population of family members of critically ill patients in an Australian Emergency Department. Instrument: The process of tool revision, adaptation and reconstruction included: critique of the CCFNI; concept definition; item review; content and structure revision; scale revision; and testing with a sample of the target population. Methods: Data collection methods were aimed at accessing a vulnerable population, while enhancing response rate and data quality. A sample of 84 relatives of critically ill patients from one Melbourne Metropolitan Emergency Department was used, 73% of whom returned questionnaires. Results: Pilot data were examined with the specific purpose of identifying elements of the tool that required refinement or modification. Methods used for establishing reliability and validity of the revised tool provided satisfactory results. Limitations: Limitations of this study include inadequate sample size for exploratory factor analysis, and an incomplete response set for some items, which influenced item analysis. Conclusion: The process used for addressing the identified methodological issues in reviewing and adapting the CCFNI for use in the ED provides a framework for adapting an established tool for a specific purpose.

Accountants and valuations in Australian family court proceedings

This paper investigates issues related to the role of accountants in presenting expert evidence in the form of share valuations in Family Court of Australia proceedings. By providing a background to the valuation rules applied by the Family Court and examining relevant cases, the paper emphasises that considerable ambiguity exists. The paper highlights some of the inconsistencies that are evident from reported decisions and stresses the difficulties that judges have experienced with valuations presented by accountants in Family Court cases. It is evident that the courts, despite the legal precedents, continue to have considerable difficulty with valuation issues and methodologies. By exploring issues related to accounting based valuations in the context of Australian family law cases, the present paper examines accounting in a particular social and institutional setting. The paper is interdisciplinary in nature, in that issues extending over accounting, finance and legal boundaries are considered.

Financial, family, and social factors impacting on cardiac rehabilitation attendance

Background
Attendance in phase 2 cardiac rehabilitation program after acute myocardial infarction is poor.

Objective
To identify and explore the demographic factors that influence peoples’ decisions to attend cardiac rehabilitation programs.

Methods
A descriptive-interpretive design was used. Semi-structured interviews were conducted with 10 people post infarction in Victoria, Australia after their first scheduled appointment to attend outpatient cardiac rehabilitation. The interview transcripts were thematically analysed.

Results
The perceived relevance of cardiac rehabilitation related to the context of people’s lives, namely their financial, family and social situation, and how important program outcomes were seen to be relevant to this context.

Conclusion
The findings of this study suggest that there are a proportion of people unlikely to attend outpatient cardiac rehabilitation programs following an AMI despite encouragement to attend. It may be unrealistic to aim for 100% referral and uptake into cardiac rehabilitation programs and therefore an inappropriate endpoint by which to evaluate such programs.

Family and home correlates of television viewing in 12-13 year old adolescents: the Nepean study

Background
Few young people meet television viewing guidelines.
Purpose
To determine the association between factors in the family and home environment and watching television, including videos and DVDs, in early adolescence.
Methods
Cross-sectional, self-report survey of 343 adolescents aged 12–13 years (173 girls), and their parents (338 mothers, 293 fathers). Main measures were factors in the family and home environment potentially associated with adolescents spending ≥ 2 hours per day in front of the television. Factors examined included family structure, opportunities to watch television/video/DVDs, perceptions of rules and regulations on television viewing, and television viewing practices.
Results
Two-thirds of adolescents watched ≥ 2 hours television per day. Factors in the family and home environment associated with adolescents watching television ≥ 2 hours per day include adolescents who have siblings (Adjusted Odds Ratio [95%CI] AOR = 3.0 [1.2, 7.8]); access to pay television (AOR = 2.0 [1.1, 3.7]); ate snacks while watching television (AOR = 3.1 [1.8, 5.4]); co-viewed television with parents (AOR = 2.3 [1.3, 4.2]); and had mothers who watched ≥ 2 hours television per day (AOR = 2.4 [1.3, 4.6]).
Conclusion
There are factors in the family and home environment that influence the volume of television viewed by 12–13 year olds. Television plays a central role in the family environment, potentially providing a means of recreation among families of young adolescents for little cost. Interventions which target family television viewing practices and those of parents, in particular, are more likely to be effective than interventions which directly target adolescent viewing times.