Constructing meanings and identities in child protection practice

Examines a contemporary and contentious social problem, child maltreatment, and the policy and practice in response to it, child protection.

Constructing the identities of `responsible mothers, invisible men` in child protection practice

Social constructionism offers valuable insights into the study of social problems for example, poverty, homelessness, crime and delinquency, including how social phenomena 'become' social problems, through social processes of interaction and interpretation. The social construction of child maltreatment has recently emerged as a site of scholarly inquiry and critique. This paper explores through three case studies how 'responsibility for child maltreatment' is constructed in child protection practice, with a specific focus on how 'responsibility' may also be gendered. In particular, how is gender associated with responsibility, such that the identity-pair, 'responsible mothers, invisible men', is a highly likely outcome as claimed in feminist literature? What other assumptions about 'identities of risk' or 'dangerousness' articulate with patriarchy and influence how responsibility is constructed? The case studies explore normally invisible processes by which social categories become 'fact', 'knowledge' and 'truth'. Furthermore, the social construction of 'responsibility for child maltreatment' is extended by a reflexive analysis of my own constructionist practices, as researcher/writer in claims making. The analysis offers an insight into the dynamic and dialectical relationship between professional and organisational knowledge and practice, allowing for a critique of knowledge itself, the basis for the claims made and possible alternative ways of knowing.

The limitations of using statutory child protection data for research into child maltreatment

Child protection legislation has undergone a number of changes since its inception, changes that have redefined the population of children in need of protection. However, child protection data on notifications and substantiations remain the most common source of data for statistics on the rate of maltreatment and the breakdown of specific maltreatment types. In the present study, three factors are identified that have compromised the accuracy of child protection data reporting the incidence of child abuse and neglect: (i) the legislative changes that mandate child protection services to protect children from harm rather than from identifiable adult actions; (ii) the shift from the Harm Standard to the Endangerment Standard; and (iii) the assignment of responsibility solely to parents.

Risk assessment in child protection: problem rather than solution?

Risk assessment in child protection services has been promoted as the most reliable way to ensure that maltreatment to children is prevented and has become central to practice with children and families. However, recent research in Australia has suggested that children are being left in unsafe situations, leading to further maltreatment, by the very agencies responsible for their protection. The present article explores the reasons why child protection has become central to child protection practice and presents a wide ranging critical appraisal of risk assessment and its application. It is argued that risk assessment is a flawed process and, as a central tenet of practice, is implicated in any problems that children's protective services face. Consequently, any future reconfiguration of services for children in need of protection needs to include a re-evaluation of the efficacy of risk  assessment.

Nurses' perceived training needs in child protection issues

Purpose – The purpose of this research is to explore nurses' perceptions of their current skills and knowledge and training needs to identify cases of child abuse and their understanding of their roles and responsibilities in relation to child abuse. Nurses, including health visitors and midwives, have been recognised as having a key role in the protection and care of children, especially in identifying and referring possible cases of child abuse and neglect.

Design/methodology/approach – A structured questionnaire concerning knowledge and training needs in child protection was sent to all nurses employed in a Scottish NHS Primary Care Trust (approximately 1,900), of whom one-third (667) responded. These survey results were complemented by semi-structured interviews with 99 members of the nursing workforce.

Findings – Almost all training in child protection had been confined to health visitors, resulting in the Trust giving an implicit message that child protection is not a role in which other nurses need have any involvement. In general, those nurses who both worked with children and had involvement in child protection issues, considered themselves to be most in need of knowledge around child protection work, to have the greatest level of knowledge and to consider further training a priority.

Research limitations/implications – Nurses who had an interest or involvement in child protection work were more likely to participate in the research, which may have biased the results.

Practical implications – Training strategies need to address the diversity of nurses' involvements in child protection work through the development of training programmes which are appropriate for different workplaces and different occupational groupings. Nurses in some settings will need to be first convinced they have the potential to play an important role in protecting children from abuse and neglect.

Originality/value – Many NHS Trusts have in recent years introduced mandatory training in child protection for all staff in contact with children. However, previously published studies have considered training issues only in respect of nurses identified as working directly with children, whereas this study explores child protection issues for all nurses employed in a primary care NHS Trust.

Child protection and public health: nurses' responsibilities

Background. Health care workers have been recognized as having a key role in the protection and care of Scotland's children, particularly in respect of identification and detection of child abuse. Nurses, especially health visitors, are often the first professionals to suspect that child abuse has taken place. While previous research has found that health visitors have primarily perceived their role as that of providing support and advice to vulnerable families, there are pressures on them to fulfil a more narrow surveillance role. Concurrent with a lack of clarity about the role of health visitors in child protection, there has been increasing recognition that other nurses can also make an important contribution, including those who do not work directly with children.

Aims. The aim of the study was to explore nurses' understanding of their professional responsibilities in relation to child protection, and the potential for nurses to be involved in the protection of children from abuse.

Methods. A qualitative interview-based design was used, and 99 nurses working in an National Health Service trust in a Scottish city were interviewed, either individually or in groups, about their professional involvements in child protection issues. Interview data were subjected to thematic analysis.

Findings. There was lack of consensus among interviewees about the nursing remit in child protection issues, particularly with respect to the extent to which nurses should actively seek to detect cases of child abuse. An emphasis on identification and detection was not easily accepted by many nurses, and was perceived by some to be a change from their more traditional role of supporting families, as well as being potentially in conflict with some public health responsibilities.

Conclusion. In spite of the perception of some nurses that there is a sharp divide between child protection work and public health interventions, many of the child protection roles identified by nurses, such as supporting families, parenting education and service development, are clearly within the ambit of contemporary notions of public health. Furthermore, it is clear that there is a role in child protection for a much wider group of nurses than health visitors.

Making a difference in child protection: towards an effective education for teachers

The purpose of this paper is to examine recent research about teachers' participation in the child protection system with a view to developing guidelines for effective child protection training. In relation to the conference themes, this paper offers multiple intersections, whether as an example of policy development impacting on the education of teachers, as one of professional practice which has implications for the ongoing education of the teaching workforce, or as a teacher education initiative, per se.

Including teachers as 'real' partners in child protection

Simultaneous downsizing of child protection services and increasing numbers of child abuse notifications often result in many notifications remaining un-investigated. One possible solution to this problem is to extend the capacity of the child protection system by delegating some of the tasks commonly undertaken by child protection workers to allied professionals. One such group of allied professionals is teachers. In the past, teachers have been recognised for their unique role in notifying suspicions of abuse, however, education professionals are often overlooked for their potential to contribute more than they currently do to child protection. In this paper we suggest that teachers can be included as 'real' and credible partners in the child protection process in a way not previously considered possible.

Clinical supervision in child protection for community nurses

Community nurses have been recognized as having a key role in the protection and care of children, particularly in relation to the identification and detection of child abuse. In order to fulfill this role in a competent manner, they need to have access to appropriate supervision. The aim of this paper is to explore community nurses' and health care managers' understanding and experience of clinical supervision in child protection. The findings presented here were collected as part of a larger study commissioned by the Greater Glasgow Primary Health Care National Health Service (NHS) Trust. Ninety-nine nurses and nursing managers were interviewed, either individually or in groups, about their professional involvement in child protection issues and support for their involvement in child protection work, as well as their current knowledge and perceived training needs. The interview data was subjected to a thematic analysis. A lack of consensus was found among nurses and managers in Glasgow as to what constitutes clinical supervision and a good deal of variation in nurses' experiences of clinical supervision in the field of child protection. The historical difficulties with regard to supervision were attributed to several aspects of nursing culture. However, both nurses and managers emphasized the need for formal, regular, systematic supervision for all nurses regardless of their specific role with regard to child protection.

Educating teachers in child protection : lessons from research

This paper examines research about child protection preparation of teachers. Such research indicates that the nature of the training required to "do the public good" would differ markedly from that which is currently on offer in most teacher education courses. Whilst teachers have the potential to operate as frontline respondents in combating child abuse, the limitations of their training create a situation in which they are "worried, lacking in confidence and stressed about their ability to comply with mandatory reporting legislation" (Bluett, 2002). The consequences to the community are substantial: not only are there disincentives for teachers to participate in child protection roles and the increased likelihood of poor quality reporting, but children subjected to abuse may be unable to access protective services via the school system. The paper distills the findings of recent studies to identify design parameters for effective teacher preparation in child protection. The paper concludes that a program informed by research has the potential to produce enhanced outcomes for children, teachers and the broader community.

Child protection, risk assessment and blame ideology

In this article we use qualitative data drawn from a sample of child protection cases 10 demonstrate holV the process of al1ributing blame to parents and carers for child maltreatment is a sign!ficanr influence 011 decisionmaking,
sometimes to the detriment of assessing the flltllre safety of children. We foctls on two cases which both demonstrate how the process of apportioning blame can lead to decisions which might not be considered 10 be in the best interests of the children concerned. We conceptualise blame as an 'ideology' with its roots in the discourse of the 'risk society', pelpetuated and sustained by the technology of risk assessment. The concept of blame ideology is offered as an addition to theOlY which seeks 10 explain the influences on decision making in child protection practice.

Exploring the possibilities of an expanded practice repertoire in child protection

Summary: This article discusses research that explored an alternative to proceduralized child protection practice informed by the risk paradigm, by expanding the repertoire available to practitioners through combining features of the risk paradigm with social constructionism. This approach incorporates three dimensions: theories of knowledge and power, related professional roles, and practice skills. In this article, we discuss and critically evaluate only the first dimension: theories of knowledge and power. Through dialogue facilitated by semi-structured questions, we explored practitioners' perspectives about the relevance and appropriateness of the alternative approach for practice.

Findings: The practitioners' participation and feedback offer insights into complex connections between `theory' and `practice' with the practitioner as a positioned subject and mediator of practical meanings of formal concepts.

Applications: 1) Recognition of each practitioner's interpretation of formal concepts and how they are applied in actual practice, even within shared organizational contexts. 2) The importance of dialogue to expand the range of possibilities that maintain openness to ongoing learning. 3) The value of theoretical pluralism that may offer greater opportunities for professional discretion, rather than single self-contained approaches that may constrain effective and ethical practice.

Domestic violence and child protection : partnerships and collaboration

The interface between the child protection and domestic violence sectors is often problematic, in that the two sectors operate relatively independently, with little integration. However, it is widely recognised that these sectors need to work more closely to enhance both women's and children's safety. This paper explores the processes needed for the child protection and domestic violence sectors to develop collaborative partnerships that lead to the provision of higher-quality responses to both women and children. Drawing on collaboration theory, a number of barriers to the development of successful partnerships are described, and applied to initiatives that seek to develop integrated approaches between child protection and domestic violence services. It is concluded that there is much scope for the two sectors to work closely together, but that the development of integrated responses involving both child protection and domestic violence services will take a significant commitment, level of determination, and stamina from both parties.