Inspired by the past, driven by the passion: music in state-supported education in New South Wales and Victoria 1848-1920

This investigation considers the development of class music teaching in New South Wales and Victoria during the first seventy-two years of state-supported primary education. The first chapter describes the English background including music teaching methods (resulting from the mid-nineteenth century English choral singing movement) and the subsequent development of music teaching in English elementary schools. The promotion of school music is then considered on a broadly chronological basis in the two states and several themes are identified in relation to school music policy and practice. These include the status of music (core curriculum or extra-curricular subject), who should teach music (generalist or specialist teachers), what teaching methods and music notation should be used (staff or Tonic Sol-fa), musical training for generalist teachers, and curriculum content in relation to the aims and objectives of school music. Comparisons are made between developments in both states and between both states and English school music. The final chapter demonstrates the relevance of many of the historical themes identified for music education today. The thesis concludes by identifying a recurring problem from the past. namely the lack of co-ordination between various aspects of school music policy, as the most serious problem to be overcome in the future.

Peopling of the Northern Territory part 1: a white elephant in a white Australia? The Northern Territory, 1901-1920

As a result of negative net immigration during the 1890s depression, Australians at the time of Federation were preoccupied about the slow rate of growth of the population. The non-Aboriginal population at the end of 1904 was approximately three and three-quarter million. and the publication in March 1904 of the Report of the New South Wales Royal Commission on the Decline of the Birth Rate and the Mortality of Infants did nothing to allay these concerns. Despite the perceived need for more people. the desire for racial unity was paramount. The main goals of policy makers at the time were to preserve a 'white' and essentially British Australia and create an imperial bastion in the Southern Hemisphere.

Woolgrowers, brokers and the debate over the sale of the Australian wool clip, 1920-1925

Prior to the First World War, the selling of the Australian wool clip rested firmly in the hands of the large woolbroking firms. An agreement between the British and Australian governments during the war saw many of the wool-selling functions of broking firms taken over by the Central Wool Committee. At the conclusion of hostilities, brokers moved to regain their role in the market. However, market conditions had changed. On an international level, traditional trading relationships had broken down, leaving commodity markets unstable and prices unpredictable. On a local level, woolgrowers had benefited from the wartime orderly marketing scheme and the high price guaranteed by the British government for their wool clip. As a result, they had begun to demand a greater role in the selling arrangements of their clip. This paper investigates the debates over the sale of the wool clip in the 1920s and how woolbrokers and growers eventually arrived at an understanding as to the manner in which the market should operate.

The origins of formal collusion in Australian fire insurance 1870-1920

The market for insurance has become increasingly competitive in recent years. However, it has not always been so. At the end of the nineteenth century, it was characterized by a highly concentrated and tightly controlled oligopolistic market structure. As such, the history of the fire insurance industry provides an interesting case study in the development of collusive behaviour amongst firms. Up to 1897, pricing agreements among firms were generally short-lived, and were followed by periods of intense competition. After this point, an agreement was forged, which proved very resilient to market pressures and formed the basis of premium rate setting until the 1970s. This paper investigates the difference between this agreement and previous efforts to set premium rates, and points to some of the common features of the later compact, which explain its longevity.

Where pain = no gain : perspectives on sport, exercise and health, c. 1850-1920

A common perspective today is that sportspeople must train and compete to a level of exertion beyond the ‘pain threshold’ if they are to succeed; a view that has given rise to the popular expression ‘No Pain, No Gain’. Indeed, a common aphorism is that the health and quality of life of individuals and of the wider population is positively correlated with the frequency and vigour of physical exercise. In the period when modern sports were taking on their present characteristics (approximately 1850-1920), the prevailing opinions about the health and well-being effects of exercise were far more cautious, however. While the benefits of moderate exercise for physical and mental well-being went without question, too great an exertion was considered to be as risky as too little, causing ‘strain’ with the potential to inflict lasting and potentially fatal damage, including mental and physical complaints as diverse as neuralgia and ‘athletes’ heart’. The supposedly more strenuous sports, such as football, athletics and rowing, and the training required for them came under particular scrutiny in medical and popular discourses. This paper, an exercise in historical sociology, examines these discourses to demonstrate how advice about the risks on health of participating in sports and of too little or too much exercise more generally, was informed by prevailing physiological models and the interpretation of these within the medical profession and the wider population. The data sources include medical journals and texts, and sports training manuals from the period under investigation.

Music in state-supported schooling in South Australia to 1920

This thesis is a study of the establishment of the music curriculum in state-supported schools in South Australia from the beginnings of such schooling until 1920. There will be a discussion of issues to be explored and the method by which this investigation will proceed. A literature survey of relevant research will be included, after which there will be a sketch of the development of state-supported schooling in South Australia. Several broad themes have been chosen as the means of organising the historical material: the rationales offered for the inclusion of music in schooling, the methodologies, syllabi and materials of such music instruction, the provisions for teacher training in music, both preservice and as professional development for established teachers, and the place and function of music in schooling. Each of these themes will form the framework for a chronological narrative. Comparisons will be made with three neighbouring colonies/States concerning each of these themes and conclusions will be drawn. Finally, overall conclusions will be made concerning the initial contentions raised in this chapter in the light of the data presented. Although this study is principally concerned with the establishment of music in state-supported schooling, there will be a brief consideration of the colony of South Australia from its proclamation in 1836. The music pedagogical context that prevailed at that time will be discussed and this will, of necessity, include developments that occurred before 1836. The period under consideration will close in 1920, by which time the music curriculum for South Australia was established, and the second of the influential figures in music education was at his zenith. At this time there was a new school curriculum in place which remained essentially unchanged for several decades. As well as the broad themes identified, this thesis will investigate several contentions as it attempts to chronicle and interpret the establishment and development of music in state-supported schooling in South Australia up to 1920. The first contention of this thesis is that music in state-supported schooling, once established, did not change significantly from its inception throughout the period under consideration. In seeking a discussion of the existence and importance of the notion of an absence of change or stasis, the theory of punctuated equilibria, which identifies stasis as the norm in the evolutionary growth of species, will be employed as an insightful analogy. It should be recognised that stasis exists, should be expected and may well be the prevailing norm. The second contention of this thesis is that advocates were and continue to be crucial to the establishment and continued existence of music in state-supported schooling. For change to occur there must be pressure through such agencies as motivated individuals holding positions of authority, and thus able to influence the educational system and its provisions. The pedagogical method introduced into an educational system is often that espoused by the acknowledged advocate. During the period under consideration there were two significant advocates for music in state-supported schools. The third contention of this thesis is that music was used in South Australia, as in the other colonies/States, as an agent of social reform, through the selection of repertoire and the way in which music was employed in state-supported schooling. Music was considered inherently uplifting. During the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, the music selected for school singing carried texts with messages deemed significant by those who controlled the education system. The repertoire was not that of the receiving class but came from a middle class tradition of fully notated art music in which correct performance and notational reading were emphasised. A sweet, pure vocal tone was desired, as strident, harsh, speaking tones were perceived as a symptom of incipient larrikinism which was not desired in schooling. Music was seen as a contributor to good order and discipline in schooling.

Prayers and pastures : Moidart emigrants in Victoria, 1852-1920

In 1852 thirty-seven Households from working class Catholic backgrounds emigrated from Moidart, Scotland, to the Colony of Port Phillip in Australia. This study personalises and contextualises the experiences of three generations in Scotland, on board ship and in Victoria concluding that upward mobility and economic security were achievable.

Controlling and developing native people : anthropology, government and the management of indigenous peoples in Australia and its territories 1920 to 1950

Examines the relationship between anthropology and native administration in the Australian territories of Papua and New Guinea and the Northwest of Australia between 1920 and 1950. Is is argued that anthropology needed colonialism rather than colonialism needing anthropology.

Teaching music in New South Wales primary schools : 1920-1956

This thesis concerns the place of music in New South Wales schools from 1920 to 1956. The initial chapters explore issues related to the investigation and the methodology that has guided the research. To provide a foundation for the thesis as a whole, the investigation’s British antecedents are considered and the relevant literature is reviewed. Six broad themes are used as the organisational framework for this thesis: the major events that shaped schooling, the syllabus and recommended music resources, the rationales for the inclusion of music in schools, the place of school music broadcasts, music teaching practice in schools, and the provision of teacher training. Each theme forms the basis of one chapter, with the exception of one extensive theme which is discussed in two adjoining chapters.

This investigation concluded that from 1920 to 1956, the Department of Education’s fundamental aim for schooling was to develop the state’s children into good citizens. Music was valued for its ability to contribute to this aim.

During this period, the Department engaged in a policy of music transmissionism. Specifically, the Department sought to transmit the music values, knowledge and skills that it held in high regard to teachers who in turn were expected to transmit them to their students. The dominant culture and values that were transmitted were those of Britain and the British Empire—that is, music was used to transmit Britishness to children.

The investigation also concluded that during this period there was an expansion of music curriculum and pedagogy in New South Wales. However, in a oneway traffic of ideas between Britain and Australia, it was British music education practices that continued to influence the methods used in New South Wales schools.

In addition, this investigation concluded that there were past periods when New South Wales schools were very musical places—specifically, at the turn of the twentieth century, during the Second World War and during the immediate post-war years. The successes achieved in music during these times required the interplay of six factors: a Department of Education that valued music for the contribution it made to the development of children as good citizens; a Department of Education that provided strong leadership for music by employing a conscientious, inspirational music educator or educators whose sole responsibility was to champion and supervise music across the state; a Departmental expectation that music would be taught by generalist teachers who themselves had developed music expertise during their pre-service preparation or through professional development opportunities offered to them; the existence of a reward system to encourage teachers to increase their music discipline knowledge and skills; a music syllabus that was developmental and hence built on prior music knowledge and skills; and teachers who were able to deliver quality music programs to their students because they themselves were one element in a cycle of respect for music.