Television, computer use and body mass index in Australian primary school children

Objective: To investigate relationships between children's body mass index (BMI) and parent reports of children's television and video game/computer habits, controlling for other potential risk factors for paediatric obesity.

Methods: Child BMI was calculated from measured height and weight collected in 1997 as part of a large, representative, cross-sectional study of children in Victoria, Australia. Parents reported the amount of time children watched television and used video games/computers, children's eating and activity habits, parental BMI and sociodemographic details.

Results: A total of 2862 children aged 5−13 years participated. Child mean BMI z-score was significantly related to television (F = 10.2₃, P < 0.001) but not video game/computer time (F = 2.2₃, P = 0.09), but accounted for only 1 and 0.2% of total BMI variance, respectively. When parental BMI, parental education, number of siblings, food intake, organized exercise and general activity level were included, television ceased to be independently significantly related to child BMI. Using adjusted logistic regression, the odds of being overweight and obese generally increased with increasing television viewing. No relationship was found for video game/computer use.
Conclusions: A small proportion of variance in child BMI was related to television, but not video game/computer time. This was far outweighed by the influence of other variables. Causal pathways are likely to be complex and interrelated.

Social, cultural and environmental influences on child activity and eating in Australian migrant communities

Aim: This study set out to examine the socio-cultural, familial and environmental factors influencing health, eating habits and patterns of physical activity contributing to child and adolescent overweight and obesity. Methods: Semi-structured, community-based interviews were conducted with contrasting key informant three-generation families; and generation by generation focus groups of grandparents, parents and children from four cultural communities in the state of Victoria, Australia. Purposive sampling occurred from Turkish, Greek, Indian and Chinese communities that have migrated to Australia within the last three generations (n = 160, eight families, 47 children aged 5–15 years, 29 parents, 42 grandparents). Results: Evidence of two-way influences on eating and physical activity across three generations was evident, with children reporting the greatest cross-cultural diversity. A range of dietary restrictions was reported across all cultural groups. Efforts to foster healthy eating and lifestyle patterns within communities were evident. Parents, as a generation in particular, felt the need for more access to education and support regarding healthy limits for pre-puberty and puberty stages. Conclusion: There is a dynamic influence of culture on many aspects of family lifestyle across three generations. To achieve successful intervention design, childhood obesity researchers need to collaborate with diverse groups and communities. Considering the role and influence of extended family, a multigenerational, whole-of-community approach beyond that of parent and child populations ought to be considered.

Reconstructing child welfare through participatory and child centred professional practice

This questionnaire study examined the adjustment of 245 lone-parenting women following marital separation. A composite model included intrapsychic variables as intervening between demographic and contextual variables and adjustment (life satisfaction). Regression analyses showed that the demographic and contextual variables were partially mediated by the intrapsychic variables. The path model indicated that the intrapsychic variables (sense of coherence, control, depression, and grief) had a direct impact on life satisfaction and that there was an indirect path for depression through sense of coherence (SOC) and control. It was concluded that the intrapsychic variables had a more powerful relationship with women's post-separation life satisfaction than did the demographic/contextual variables. Social implications and recommendations for future policy are considered.

Pretend play, social competence and involvement in children aged 5-7 years : the concurrent validity of the child-initiated pretend play assessment

Background and aims: The aims of this study were to investigate the relationship between pretend play, social competence and involvement in school-based activities in children aged 5–7 years and to determine whether children's social competence and level of involvement could be inferred from their scores on the Child-Initiated Pretend Play Assessment.
Procedure: The pretend play skills of 41 primary school-aged children aged 5–7 years were assessed on a one-on-one basis. Classroom teachers of the children assessed the children's social competence using the Penn Interactive Peer Play Scale and their involvement in school based activities using the Leuven Involvement Scale for Young Children.
Main findings: Significant positive relationships were found between elaborate pretend play and object substitution scores, involvement scores and peer play interaction scores (P < 0.05, P < 0.01). A significant negative relationship was found between elaborate pretend play scores, and social disconnection and social disruption scores (P < 0.05). Play deficit indicators were significantly negatively related to involvement scores (P < 0.01). This suggests that children with proficient pretend play skills are socially competent with peers and are able to engage in classroom activity. Children who scored poorly on the play assessment were more likely to have difficulty interacting with their peers and engaging in school activities.
Conclusion: Social competence and involvement skills are related to a child's ability to engage in pretend play. A child's social skills and ability to engage in school activities as assessed by teachers can be inferred from their scores on the Child-Initiated Pretend Play Assessment.

Differences in dropout between diagnoses in child and adolescent mental health services

Dropout from treatment is a significant problem in child and adolescent mental health services, and findings regarding the role of possible contributing factors are inconsistent. It is argued that this inconsistency may be the result of the confounding effects of different definitions of dropout, and different dropout rates for different diagnoses. A file review of 520 new cases over a 12-month period in a large Child and Adolescent Mental Health Service in Melbourne, Australia was performed. Information was collected about the intake, parents, family, child, diagnoses and treatment. A significant relationship was found between diagnosis and dropout rate, with clients experiencing family problems or conduct disorder and ADHD being more likely to dropout, and those experiencing negative life events, anxiety disorders or those not having a diagnosis being less likely to dropout. These findings offer potential directions for services to consider specific strategies for retaining their clients. Possible reasons for these findings, methodological issues and future research directions are discussed.

Parent's views of the importance of making changes in settings where children spend time to prevent obesity

Aim : To examine the kinds of changes parents would like to see in those settings where children spend time (kindergartens and schools, child care centres and after-school care facilities, and the local neighbourhood) in policies and practices that impact on children’s risk of obesity, and to establish whether parents might be willing to advocate for changes in these settings.

Materials and Methods : 175 parents from five randomly selected primary schools and five randomly selected kindergartens located in suburbs of metropolitan Melbourne completed a questionnaire in which they rated the importance of a number of potential changes to promote healthy eating and increase physical activity in their children.

Results : Parents of children in kindergarten most commonly rated changes to the eating environment as important. In contrast, parents of primary school children believed changes related to both eating and physical activity in school were important. Ninety-five per cent of parents of kindergarten children and 89% of parents of primary school children believed it was possible for parents to bring about change to provide more opportunities for their child to eat more healthily and be more physically active. One in four parents reported that they had thought about or had tried to bring about changes in their community.

Conclusions : The findings suggest that mobilising parents to take an active role in advocating for change in those settings that have the potential to shape their children’s physical activity and eating behaviours may be feasible.

The impact of childhood conditions and concurrent morbidities on child health and well-being

Background. Understanding the impact of illnesses and morbidities experienced by children and adolescents is essential to clinical and population health programme decision making and intervention research. This study sought to: (1) examine the population prevalence of physical and mental health conditions for children and quantify their impact on multiple dimensions of children's health and well-being; and (2) examine the cumulative effect of concurrent conditions.

Methods. We conducted a cross-sectional school-based epidemiological study of 5414 children and adolescents aged 5–18 years, and examined parental reports of child health and well-being using the parent-report Child Health Questionnaire (CHQ) PF50 13 scales are scored on a 0–100 pt scale with clinically meaningful differences of five points and the presence of childhood conditions (illnesses and health problems).

Results. Asthma, dental, vision and allergies are the most commonly identified health problems for children and adolescents, followed by attention- and behaviour-related problems (asthma 17.9–23.2%, dental 11.9–22.7%, vision 7.2–14.7%, chronic allergies 8.8–13.9%, attention problems 5.1–13.8% and behaviour problems 5.7–12.0%). As the number of concurrent health problems increase, overall health and well-being decreases substantively with mean differences in CHQ scale scores of 14 points (−7.69 to −21.51) for physical health conditions, and 28 points (−5.15 to −33.81) for mental health conditions.

Conclusions. Children's health and well-being decreases linearly with increasing presence and frequency of health problems. Having three or more conditions concurrently significantly burdens children's health and well-being, particularly for family-related CHQ domains, with a greater burden experienced for mental health conditions than physical health conditions.

Short term reoffending by child victim sex offenders in New Zealand : a comparison of those with and without extended supervision

Sexual offenders with child victims in New Zealand who are considered at high risk for reoffending are subject to an Extended Supervision Order. This allows for a period of supervision of up to ten years following release to the community. The present study examined 89 offenders given Extended Supervision Orders over the 33 month period since the legislation was enacted. All types of reoffending resulting in criminal convictions by this group were included. A matched sample of sexual offenders with child victims released prior to this legislation and a sample of offenders judged to be lower risk were compared to those under extended supervision. Offenders under extended supervision reoffended faster and at a higher rate for both sexual and general offences than those deemed lower risk, but at a lower rate than pre-extended supervision high risk offenders. The relationship between specialist treatment programme attendance and completion, actuarial risk level, and recidivism in the extended supervision sample were also investigated. These variables were found not to be significant predictors of sexual recidivism.

Sentencing of male and female child sex offenders : Australian study

Research suggests that, in line with the chivalry hypothesis of female offending, a range of mitigatory factors such as mental health problems, substance abuse, and personal experiences of abuse are brought into play when women who offend against children are brought to trial. This is reflected in sentencing comments made by judges and in the sanctions imposed on the offenders, and as a result female offenders are treated differently to male offenders. The current study investigated this in an Australian context. Seven cases of female-perpetrated child sexual abuse were identified over a 6-year period through the Austlii database. Seven cases of male-perpetrated child sex abuse matched as far as possible to these were identified. Court transcripts were then located, and sentencing comments and sanctions imposed were analysed. All offenders were sentenced to imprisonment, but in general the women were more likely than the men to receive less jail time and lower non-parole periods because their personal backgrounds or situation at the time of the offending (i.e., difficulties with intimate relationship, male dependence issues, depression, loneliness and anger) were perceived as worthy of sympathy, and they were considered as likely to be rehabilitated. Further investigations are needed to support these findings.

Parental exercise is associated with Australian children's extracurricular sports participation and cardiorespiratory fitness : a cross-sectional study

Background: The relationship between parental physical activity and children's physical activity and cardiorespiratory fitness has not been well studied in the Australian context. Given the increasing focus on physical activity and childhood obesity, it is important to understand correlates of children's physical activity. This study aimed to investigate whether parental exercise was associated with children's extracurricular sports participation and cardiorespiratory fitness.

Methods: The data were drawn from a nationally representative sample (n = 8,484) of 7–15 year old Australian schoolchildren, surveyed as part of the Australian Schools Health and Fitness Survey in 1985. A subset of 5,929 children aged 9–15 years reported their participation in extracurricular
sports and their parents' exercise. Cardiorespiratory fitness was measured using the 1.6 km (1- mile) run/walk and inaddition for children aged 9, 12 or 15 years, using a physical work capacity test (PWC170).

Results: While the magnitude of the differences were small, parental exercise was positively associated with children's extracurricular sports participation (p < 0.001), 1.6 km run/walk time (p < 0.001) and, in girls only, PWC170 (p = 0.013). In most instances, when only one parent was active, the sex of that parent was not an independent predictor of the child's extracurricular sports participation and cardiorespiratory fitness.

Conclusion: Parental exercise may influence their children's participation in extracurricular sports and their cardiorespiratory fitness levels. Understanding the correlates of children's extracurricular sport participation is important for the targeting of health promotion and public health interventions, and may influence children's future health status.

Getting the complete picture : combining parental and child data to identify the barriers to social inclusion for children living in low socio-economic areas

Background: Childhood mental health problems are prevalent in Australian children (14–20%). Social exclusion is a risk factor for mental health problems, whereas being socially included can have protective effects. This study aims to identify the barriers to social inclusion for children aged 9–12 years living in low socio-economic status (SES) areas, using both child-report and parent-report interviews.

Methods: Australian-born English-speaking parents and children aged 9–12 years were sampled from a low SES area to participate in semi-structured interviews. Parents and children were asked questions around three prominent themes of social exclusion; exclusion from school, social activities and social networks.

Results: Many children experienced social exclusion at school, from social activities or within social networks. Overall, nine key barriers to social inclusion were identified through parent and child interviews, such as inability to attend school camps and participate in school activities, bullying and being left out, time and transport constraints, financial constraints and safety and traffic concerns. Parents and children often identified different barriers.

Discussion: There are several barriers to social inclusion for children living in low SES communities, many of which can be used to facilitate mental health promotion programmes. Given that parents and children may report different barriers, it is important to seek both perspectives.

Conclusion: This study strengthens the evidence base for the investments and action required to bring about the conditions for social inclusion for children living in low SES communities.

The relationship between job status, interviewing experience, gender, and police officers' adherence to open-ended questions

Purpose : The current study examined whether several factors related to the job and demographic profile of police officers are associated with adherence to best-practice guidelines when interviewing children.

Method : One hundred and seventy-eight police officers completed a standardized (simulated) interview regarding an allegation of abuse by a 5-year-old child. Immediately prior to this interview, details were obtained from the officers' regarding their job status, gender, interview experience, the timing and nature of prior training/supervision, and experience outside the policing profession with young children.

Results : The results showed that timing of training was the only factor that related to interview performance. The proportion of open-ended questions among participants who completed their interviewer training course less than 1 month prior to the simulated interview was better than those who completed the training earlier. Interestingly, the performance of the latter group was identical to that of a group of participants who had not yet received any formal interview training. The implications of the findings are discussed, along with directions for future research.

Developing the whole child? Tensions between sport and study in Australian independent schools

This paper reports on a research project that set out to examin the relationship between students' involvement in school co-curricular activities and their academic performance.  The warrant for the study emerges out of consistent claims made about the provision of co-curricular, naming sporting, activities and the development of a more rounded and successful student.  The primary question being asked here was: 'Are student's academic performances, as measured by their results for tertiary entrance in their final year of school, improved or reduced by their participation in co-curricular activities?'  The study used a mix of quantitative and qualitative methods to interrogate this relationship.

Multi-type maltreatment : relationships between familial characteristics, maltreatment and adjustment of children and adults

This thesis examines the nature, extent and impact of multiple forms of maltreatment (multi-type maltreatment) from within a developmental victimological framework. The interrelationships between sexual abuse, physical abuse, psychological maltreatment, neglect, and witnessing family violence are assessed. The role of family variables in predicting maltreatment and the relative contribution of child maltreatment and family variables to adjustment are evaluated. Risk factors for multi-type maltreatment, and the relationship between multi-type maltreatment and adjustment are explored. The major theories of child development are reviewed. As well as exploring the relevance of developmental theories to understanding the impact of child maltreatment, factors influencing the emergence of child psychopathology are reviewed from a developmental psychopathology perspective. Ecological and developmental perspectives on how child maltreatment translates into the behavioural and emotional adjustment problems of children are integrated in the Child Maltreatment: Risk and Protection Model. After exploring some of the relevant conceptual issues, the literature on the prevalence and impact of each maltreatment type is reviewed, and the literature on multi-type maltreatment critiqued. Methodological and ethical concerns with the conduct of research in the field of child maltreatment using direct assessment of children led to the need for an instrument to assess parent perceptions of each of the types of abuse and neglect, as well as adult retrospective reports. Data are presented from two cross-sectional questionnaire-based studies using the Parent and Adult versions of the Family and Life Experiences Questionnaire which was designed to assess perceptions of children's experiences of sexual abuse, physical abuse, psychological maltreatment, neglect and witnessing family violence. Problems with the isolated focus of research on single forms of child maltreatment are addressed by the inclusion of each of these forms of child maltreatment within a single research design. Respondents for both studies were volunteers recruited from counselling agencies, medical, community health, child care and fitness centres and a first year psychology course. Parents (N=50) described their perceptions of primary school children's family characteristics, experiences of maltreatment and adjustment. Children's behavioural adjustment (internalising and externalising), sexual behaviours, emotions, self-esteem, gender identity, family adaptability and cohesion, parental traditionality, parental sexual punitiveness, interparental relationship satisfaction, and demographic characteristics are assessed in the study of Parents' perceptions. A large degree of overlap between the different types of abuse and neglect was found, with a high proportion of parents describing children's experiences of multiple forms of child maltreatment. Using both maltreatment and family characteristics to predict internalising behaviour problems, neglect and family cohesion were the only unique predictors. Family adaptability and cohesion were the only unique predictors of externalising behaviour problems. Physical and sexual abuse were not predicted from family characteristics; neglect was predicted, but no variables provided unique prediction. Unique predictors of psychological maltreatment were family cohesion, parental sexual punitiveness and divorce. Divorce was the only variable with significant unique prediction of the child witnessing family violence. Family background and family functioning were found to predict some forms of maltreatment, but to also be important factors mediating the adjustment of children, independent of maltreatment. The results are interpreted within an ecological framework, integrating risk factors for maltreatment with experiences of abuse and neglect and subsequent adjustment in childhood. Retrospective reports of adults' (N=175) own childhood family characteristics, experiences of maltreatment, and reports of their current adjustment are also studied. Included with the adult version of the FLEQ were the Trauma Symptom Checklist-40, Rosenberg's Self-esteem Scale, and the Family and Adaptability and Cohesion Evaluation Scale-II. Similar results were found in the in the Adult Study. As hypothesised, adult retrospective reports of the five different types of child maltreatment were found to be highly intercorrelated. Family characteristics predicted maltreatment and adjustment scores and discriminated between single and multi-type maltreatment. Maltreatment scores also predicted adult adjustment. As the number of maltreatment types increased, there was an increase in the number of adjustment problems reported. Alternate hypotheses regarding the possible operation of mediating and moderating processes in the relationships between family characteristics, maltreatment and the adjustment of adults were assessed. Finally, the results of these investigations are discussed and interpreted in the light of extant findings previously reviewed. Data from the two major empirical studies are used to demonstrate the overlap between different child maltreatment categories, and the extent and impact of multi-type maltreatment. The results show that children are vulnerable to more than one type of maltreatment. Individuals who experience a number of different forms of maltreatment had greater adjustment problems than those experiencing only one or two different types of abuse or neglect. Dysfunctional families place children at risk of child maltreatment. Negative family characteristics lead to adjustment problems in children and adults. The type of maltreatment having the most damaging effect on children was neglect, and in the long-term, sexual abuse. A multi-dimensional approach to prevention and intervention needs to be adopted, based on the co-morbidity of maltreatment types, and the likelihood of children experiencing further abuse or neglect of a different type. Dysfunctional family dynamics which place children at risk of multi-type maltreatment, and mediate the effects of maltreatment on adjustment, need to be specifically targeted with support and family intervention strategies. Risk-assessment measures used by Child Protection workers must include adequate knowledge of the inter-relationships between maltreatment types, and the particularly negative impact on adjustment of experiencing many forms of abuse or neglect. Suggestions for future clinical and research work in the area of child maltreatment are developed. The importance of assessing all forms of maltreatment when examining the relationships of maltreatment to adjustment is emphasised. It is recommended that prevention and intervention strategies acknowledge the interrelationships between maltreatment types.