Age does not influence the bone response to treadmill exercise in female rats

Purpose: Because it is believed that bone may respond to exercise differently at different ages, we compared bone responses in immature and mature rats after 12 wk of treadmill running.

Methods: Twenty-two immature (5-wk-old) and 21 mature (17-wk-old) female Sprague Dawley rats were randomized into a running (trained, N = 10 immature, 9 mature) or a control group (controls, N = 12 immature, 12 mature) before sacrifice 12 wk later. Rats ran on a treadmill five times per week for 60-70 min at speeds up to 26 m[middle dot]min-1. Both at baseline and after intervention, we measured total body, lumbar spine, and proximal femoral bone mineral, as well as total body soft tissue composition using dual-energy x-ray absorptiometry (DXA) in vivo. After sacrificing the animals, we measured dynamic and static histomorphometry and three-point bending strength of the tibia.

Results: Running training was associated with greater differences in tibial subperiosteal area, cortical cross-sectional area, peak load, stiffness, and moment of inertia in immature and mature rats (P < 0.05). The trained rats had greater periosteal bone formation rates (P < 0.01) than controls, but there was no difference in tibial trabecular bone histomorphometry. Similar running-related gains were seen in DXA lumbar spine area (P = 0.04) and bone mineral content (BMC;P = 0.03) at both ages. For total body bone area and BMC, the immature trained group increased significantly compared with controls (P < 0.05), whereas the mature trained group gained less than did controls (P < 0.01).

Conclusion: In this in vivo model, where a similar physical training program was performed by immature and mature female rats, we demonstrated that both age groups were sensitive to loading and that bone strength gains appeared to result more from changes in bone geometry than from improved material properties.

The impact of erectile dysfunction on female partners : a qualitative investigation

Sexual dysfunction research has primarily focused on understanding and treating problems of erectile dysfunction (ED) in men. Research has paid little attention to the impact of ED on women. The current study reports on an investigation of women's perception of their partners' ED, what they had tried to do about the problem and the impact of ED on them and their relationship. In-depth interviews were conducted with 51 women who were currently in a heterosexual relationship with a man with ED. The findings provide detailed information on women's experience of their partners' ED. They also demonstrate the need for educational resources on sexual difficulties for both the lay public and their medical practitioners. In the clinical situation, the study demonstrated the value of involving the female partner in the treatment process in improving a couple's sexual satisfaction.

What can prevalence studies tell us about female sexual difficulty and dysfunction?

Introduction. Many recent studies have investigated the prevalence of female sexual difficulty/dysfunction.
Aim. Investigate female sexual difficulty/dysfunction using data from prevalence studies.
Methods. We reviewed published prevalence studies excluding those that had not included each category of sexual difficulty (desire, arousal, orgasm, and pain), were based on convenience sampling, or had a response rate <50% or a sample size <100.
Main Outcome Measures. For each study we used the prevalence of any sexual difficulty as the denominator and calculated the proportion of women reporting each type of difficulty. For each category of sexual difficulty we used the prevalence of that difficulty lasting 1 month or more as the denominator and calculated the proportion of difficulties lasting several months or more and 6 months or more.
Results. Only 11 of 1,248 studies identified met our inclusion criteria. These studies used different measures of sexual dysfunction, so generating a simple summary prevalence was not possible. However, we observed consistent patterns in the published data. Among women with any sexual difficulty, on average, 64% (range 16–75%) experienced desire difficulty, 35% (range 16– 48%) experienced orgasm difficulty, 31% (range 12–64%) experienced arousal difficulty, and 26% (range 7–58%) experienced sexual pain. Of the sexual difficulties that occurred for 1 month or more in the previous year, 62–89% persisted for at least several months and 25–28% persisted for 6 months or more. Two studies investigated distress. Only a proportion of women with sexual difficulty were distressed by it (21–67%).
Conclusions. Desire difficulty is the most common sexual difficulty experienced by women. While the majority of difficulties last for less than 6 months, up to a third persist for 6 months or more. Sexual difficulties do not always cause distress. Consequently, prevalence estimates will vary depending on the time frame specified by researchers and whether distress is included in these estimates.

Are aspects of study design associated with the reported prevalence of female sexual difficulties?

Objective: To investigate associations between the prevalence of sexual  difficulties reported in published studies and design features of those studies to determine if differences in design contribute to variation in prevalence estimates.
Design: Systematic review, multivariate analysis.
Setting: Studies published internationally in English.
Patient(s): Not applicable.
Intervention(s): None.
Main Outcome Measure(s): Prevalence estimates of difficulty with desire, arousal, orgasm, and sexual pain reported in published studies.
Result(s): Our systematic literature search identified 1,380 publications. Fifty-five studies met our inclusion criteria (reporting prevalence, sample size and response rate, sample size greater than 100, not clinic based). Reported prevalence of sexual difficulty varied across studies (up to tenfold). Eleven aspects of research conduct in these studies were included in our multivariate analysis as explanatory variables. Five aspects of study design and conduct (data collection procedures, inclusion criteria, duration of sexual difficulty recorded, sample size, and response rate) were associated with the reported prevalence of at least one type of sexual difficulty independently of likely predictors of true variation in prevalence: study location, study year, and age range of participants.
Conclusion(s): This review provides evidence that study design may influence reported prevalence estimates of female sexual difficulties and contribute to the wide variation in published estimates.

Risk factors for female sexual dysfunction in the general population : exploring factors associated with low sexual function and sexual distress

Introduction. No previous population-based studies have used validated instruments to measure female sexual dysfunction (FSD) in Australian women across a broad age range.
Aim. To estimate prevalence and explore factors associated with the  components of FSD.
Main Outcome Measures. Sexual Function Questionnaire measured low sexual function. Female Sexual Distress Scale measured sexual distress.
Methods. Multivariate analysis of postal survey data from a random sample of 356 women aged 20–70 years.
Results. Low desire was more likely to occur in women in relationships for 20–29 years (odds ratio 3.7, 95% confidence intervals 1.1–12.8) and less likely in women reporting greater satisfaction with their partner as a lover (0.3, 0.1–0.9) or who placed greater importance on sex (0.1, 0.03–0.3). Low genital arousal was more likely among women who were perimenopausal (4.4, 1.2–15.7), postmenopausal (5.3, 1.6–17.7), or depressed (2.5, 1.1–5.3), and was less likely in women taking hormone therapy (0.2, 0.04–0.7), more educated (0.5, 0.3–0.96), in their 30s (0.2, 0.1–0.7) or 40s (0.2, 0.1–0.7), or placed greater importance on sex (0.2, 0.05–0.5). Low orgasmic function was less likely in women who were in their 30s (0.3, 0.1–0.8) or who placed greater importance on sex (0.3, 0.1–0.7). Sexual distress was positively associated with depression (3.1, 1.2–7.8) and was inversely associated with better communication of sexual needs (0.2, 0.05–0.5). Results were adjusted for other covariates including age, psychological, socioeconomic, physiological, and relationship factors.
Conclusions. Relationship factors were more important to low desire than age or menopause, whereas physiological and psychological factors were more important to low genital arousal and low orgasmic function than relationship factors. Sexual distress was associated with both psychological and relationship factors.

Modeling response rates in surveys of female sexual difficulty and dysfunction

INTRODUCTION: Studies that address sensitive topics, such as female sexual difficulty and dysfunction, often achieve poor response rates that can bias  results. Factors that affect response rates to studies in this area are not well characterized.
AIM: To model the response rate in studies investigating the prevalence of female sexual difficulty and dysfunction.
METHODS: Databases were searched for English-language, prevalence studies using the search terms: sexual difficulties/dysfunction, woman/women/female, prevalence, and cross-sectional. Studies that did not report response rates or were clinic-based were excluded. A multiple linear regression model was constructed.
MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: Published response rates.
RESULTS: A total of 1,380 publications were identified, and 54 of these met our inclusion criteria. Our model explained 58% of the variance in response rates of studies investigating the prevalence of difficulty with desire, arousal, orgasm, or sexual pain (R(2) = 0.581, P = 0.027). This model was based on study design variables, study year, location, and the reported prevalence of each type of sexual difficulty. More recent studies (beta = -1.05, P = 0.037) and studies that only included women over 50 years of age (beta = -31.11, P = 0.007) had lower response rates. The use of face-to-face interviews was associated with a higher response rate (beta = 20.51, P = 0.036). Studies that did not include questions regarding desire difficulties achieved higher response rates than those that did include questions on desire difficulty (beta = 23.70, P = 0.034).
CONCLUSION: Response rates in prevalence studies addressing female sexual difficulty and dysfunction are frequently low and have decreased by an average of just over 1% per anum since the late 60s. Participation may improve by conducting interviews in person. Studies that investigate a broad range of ages may be less representative of older women, due to a poorer response in older age groups. Lower response rates in studies that investigate desire difficulty suggest that sexual desire is a particularly sensitive topic.

What is the "true" prevalence of female sexual dysfunctions and does the way we assess these conditions have an impact?

Introduction. A wide range of prevalence estimates of female sexual dysfunctions (FSD) have been reported.
Aim. Compare instruments used to assess FSD to determine if differences between instruments contribute to variation in reported prevalence.
Main Outcome Measures. Sexual Function Questionnaire combined with Female Sexual Distress Scale (SFQ-FSDS) was our gold standard, validated instrument for assessing FSD. Alternatives were SFQ alone and two sets of simple questions adapted from Laumann et al. 1994.
Methods. A postal survey was administered to a random sample of 356 Australian women aged 20 to 70 years.
Results. When assessed by SFQ-FSDS, prevalence estimates (95% confidence intervals) of hypoactive sexual desire disorder, sexual arousal disorder (lubrication), orgasmic disorder, and dyspareunia were 16% (12% to 20%), 7% (5% to 11%), 8% (6% to 12%), and 1% (0.5% to 3%), respectively. Prevalence estimates varied across alternative instruments for these disorders: 32% to 58%, 16% to 32%, 16% to 33%, and 3% to 23%, respectively. Compared with SFQ-FSDS alternative instruments produced higher estimates of desire, arousal and orgasm disorders and displayed a range of sensitivities (0.25 to 1.0), specificities (0.48 to 0.99), positive predictive values (0.01 to 0.56), and negative predictive values (0.95 to 1.0) across the disorders investigated. Kappa statistics comparing SFQ-FSDS and alternative instruments ranged from 0 to 0.71 but were predominantly 0.44 or less. Changing recall from previous month to 1 month or more in the previous year produced higher estimates for all disorders investigated. Including sexual distress produced lower estimates for desire, arousal, and orgasm disorders.
Conclusions. Prevalence estimates of FSD varied substantially across instruments. Relatively low positive predictive values and kappa statistics combined with a broad range of sensitivities and specificities indicated that different instruments identified different subgroups. Consequently, the instruments researchers choose when assessing FSD may affect prevalence estimates and risk factors they report.

Susceptibility of reproduction in female pigs to impairment by stress or elevation of cortisol

It is generally agreed that stress can impair reproduction. Furthermore, it is often thought that cortisol, which is secreted during stress as a result of activation of the hypothalamo-pituitary adrenal axis, is associated with this stress-induced impairment of reproduction. It has been hypothesized that reproduction in females is particularly susceptible to disruption by acute stress during the series of endocrine events that induce estrus and ovulation. Nevertheless, we found no support for this conjecture when we subjected female pigs to repeated acute stress or repeated acute elevation of cortisol during the period leading up to estrus and ovulation. Conversely, studies have demonstrated that prolonged stress and sustained elevation of cortisol can disrupt reproductive processes in female pigs. Nevertheless, in each study that demonstrated this effect, there were some animals subjected to the prolonged stressor or the sustained elevation of cortisol in which the reproductive parameters that were measured were not affected by the treatment. We propose that reproduction in female pigs is resistant to the effects of acute or repeated acute stress or acute or repeated acute elevation of cortisol even if these occur during the series of endocrine events that induce estrus and ovulation. Furthermore, while reproductive processes in some individuals are compromised, reproduction in a proportion of female pigs appears to be resistant to the effects of prolonged stress or sustained elevation of cortisol.

Advances in self-engagement research method : the case of disadvantaged female migrant entrepreneurs in Auckland, New Zealand

The “self-engagement research method” is a set of research procedures, which aims to search latent (hidden) attitudes within a given group of individuals, such as disadvantaged women. This method also examines the research participants practises through an intensive involvement in the process of research. Research on self-regulation has also tended to emphasize having personal control over an event as the primary determinant of whether individuals can effectively monitor and alter their behaviour to attain a desired end state (W. Britt, 1999, 699).

The “self-engagement procedure” originated from fieldwork of social research, especially from the present author’s experiences as a researcher and practitioner on women’s empowerment under the micro-finance programme in Women’s Empowerment Foundation, Auckland and in Grameen Bank Micro-finance programme (Nobel prize winner Professor Mohammed Yunus on poverty reduction through micro-finance).

This technique is based on the oft-cited phenomenon of discrepancies between what research Participants say what they often believe (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Participant_observation). This follows on Gabriel (1991:123-126) namely that participant observation is a useful technique for gaining insight into facts and is also useful for the rural poor or marginal groups, who are unable to communicate their problems. The problem is that since the 1980s, some anthropologists and the social scientists have questioned the degree to which participant observation can give truthful insight into the minds of other people (Geertz, Clifford,1984 & Rosaldo, Renato, 1986).

This paper discusses the difficulties found in using participant observation to discover discrepancies between what participants say and what they really believe. It also discusses self-engagement research procedures which the author has developed through the long-term research experiences with disadvantaged groups of women in Auckland. These procedures discover the discrepancies between what participants say and what is in their mind.

These self-engagement procedures were used from the beginning of the fieldwork to locate research areas and get access to the study settings. It was found there are gaps in this method. For example, there are no systematic processes in which researchers can gain access into the community or be welcomed by research participants. It was also difficult to discover the insight into the facts that cause disempowerment and how micro-finance impacts everyday life on research participants. McCracken (1988 cited in Mertens, 1998:321) argued that researchers collect data directly through observation, but it is not possible to imitate, repeat involvement in the experiences of research participants.

This research draws on and extends the long traditional of participant observation in social research. In field research practises, participant observation was used in different ways for gaining insight into different aspects. A good example is the use and mis-use of the “field journal” in this type of research. The journal typically explained and analysed experiences and understanding of participant observation, in-depth interviews and group discussions on the impact of micro-finance on women’s lives. However, researchers later realised that there were gaps in collected knowledge that needed to be filled. This led to “self-engagement procedures” which developed greater confidence that collected data could truly give insight into patterns of behaviour.

This paper addresses sensitive issues of women’s empowerment under the micro finance programmes and makes a contribution to the literature. The “self-engagement method” detects the “silent facts” of women’s lives. In research conducted amongst disadvantaged women in Auckland, New Zealand and Grameen Bank micro-finance programme in Bangladesh. The method of self-engagement led to better data when participants (both research and subjects) clearly perceived the purpose of the research, when participants have control over providing personal information, and when subjects can build trust with researchers. One overall lesson of this research is that research data and findings are more generalisaable and valid when the participants in the research process understand the relevancy to his/her disadvantaged position and the causes of this, and when participants perceive that it is an opportunity to voice his/her disadvantages and causes.

The “self-engagement research method” involves a variety of behavioural activities. This paper also attempts to discuss in detail, these activities. This paper attempts to discuss the process of the “self-engagement method” in a systematic way. This has been addressed in the research process, in which research participants and researchers become self-engaged to detect the reality of the impact of micro finance to empower the disadvantaged. The stages of self-engagement procedures were developed and followed throughout field research into entrepreneurial behaviour of disadvantaged women in Auckland.

Research on self-regulation has also tended to emphasize having personal control over an event as the primary determinant of whether individuals can effectively monitor and alter their behaviour to attain a desired end state (W. Britt, 1999, 699).

A suitable research method could identify the empowerment/disempowerment of a disadvantaged group of individuals. The self-engagement procedures create a process, in which research participants and researchers become ‘self-engaged’ and gain insight into facts.

A gender for change : the future for women in surveying

Women now make up 50% of the working population in the UK, with similar figures reflected across Europe (Williams et al, 2000). Despite this growth, the number of women entering and working in the surveying profession remains consistently low, estimated at 9% of the total of RICS membership in 1999 (Ellison, 1999).

So what is preventing the surveying profession in mimicking the law and medical professions in increasing the participation of women? Is it the lack of awareness of the profession in Schools, Colleges and Careers Education? Is it a traditional perception of a gender-biased profession? Is it the lack of role models for young women? Or is it plain discrimination? If it is one or more of these, then what action should be taken to address the barriers? The paper describes the results of two studies exploring barriers to female entry to the surveying profession and progress made in the profession by women in the UK. The methodologies included questionnaires and interviews with school leavers and with surveying practitioners, male and female, at varying stages of their career.

The studies undertaken by female surveying students found that barriers exist at different points in surveying - at entry and employment, and that some of those barriers are being addressed by the profession in different ways. At the entry point to surveying there is still a lack of awareness of the profession as a career for girls and women. This can be addressed by greater liaison between schools and surveyors in the profession and by increased information and awareness of career advisers. Within the profession there are still barriers for women surveyors to overcome, including work-life balance issues and traditional attitudes of some male surveyors. There are, however, signs of positive change within a number of surveying firms in the UK. The RICS has been identified as an institution that needs to re-examine its attitudes to gender in a number of aspects.

The paper also outlines the work of a project in the UK (which has developed from a European funded project) that is involved in actively addressing the remaining barriers at all levels. The partnership aims to mainstream good practice in recruitment, teaching and learning and employment. Let's TWIST has recently (November 2001) been successful in gaining funds from EQUAL (funded through European Social Fund) with other partners for a major three year project. The aim of the project is to break down gender desegregation in target sectors of employment, and address cultural and attitudinal barriers that promote discrimination by building on the work already developed. Change is clearly happening, and Let's TWIST is one of a number of active groups in this area who are moving things forward towards mainstreaming which, according to the Equal Opportunities Commission (2001)

Why do women like working in building conservation?

There is a perception that Building Conservation as a career is different from the mainstream, and it appears to be more attractive to women - at whatever level - than many other careers in the construction industry. Whilst recruitment and publicity can be targeted, the culture within the construction industry can be a barrier to entry for anyone that is "different." As Clara Greed (1999) discovered in her research "the traits, beliefs and lifestyle peculiar to the construction tribe" can inhibit the entry to the industry of a number of groups outside the traditional pool. The growth of women in the workforce generally (some 50% according to Turrell et al, 2000) is nowhere near being matched within the construction industry as a whole - the Construction Industry Board placed it at around 8.6% in 2000 across all positions. The various UK industry and professional bodies are actively supporting the need to attract women, with the CITB saying they want a 10% year on year increase in participation, the RICS have their own Raising the Ratio working group and the RIBA have carried out research to find out "why women leave architecture."

Of course the whole of the industry is not unfriendly to women - there are a number of us who have been in the industry for many years and recognise it as a fulfilling and exciting career - a number of women work as surveyors working on historic buildings. The initiatives that are working towards change might have something to learn from Building Conservation - while the shortage of skills is just as severe in work with historc buildings - this area of work holds an attraction to women, not found elsewhere. This paper draws on research carried out to explore some of the reasons for this.

The study involved sending a questionnaire to twenty women already working in Building Conservation (the response rate was over 100%) and arranging for questionnaires to be completed by school students (male and female) choosing university courses in one school (60 questionnaires sent out, with 35 returned at a response rate of 58%)

The research showed that the majority women working in Building Conservation did not agree that men heavily dominated their sector of the industry, whereas within other areas of the construction industry men make up approximately 90% of the workforce. The research found that women often perceived the Construction Industry to be 'cut-throat', 'egotistical' and 'financially beneficial', whereas they thought Building Conservation required 'patience', 'care' and 'attention to detail'.

Of the women who took part in the research, 87% were working in Building Conservation because of a personal interest , and the main aspect of that attarction was history and architecture. The study examined attitudes of school students choosing careers and the research shows that when male and female sixth form students were told what Building Conservation was about and what it involved, 43% would consider a career in it and 49% would be interested in talking part in a work experience placement working with historic buildings. The shortage of people working in Building Conservation could be reduced if more people were educated about the profession in a way relevant to their skills and interests. In order to assist this action, the study examined ways to introduce Building Conservation careers to school girls and drew on the initiatives that the university is doing to promote careers in the built environment to schoolgirls.

The impact of study design on prevalence estimates of female sexual dysfunction

Introduction, objectives Despite increasing research, the true prevalence of Female Sexual Dysfunction (FSD) remains a contentious issue. Previous research suggests that aspects of study design affect the reported prevalence of FSD. We compare commonly used instruments for assessing FSD. Methods A random sample of 240 Australian women aged 20-70 participated in this population based, cross-sectional study. A questionnaire mailed to women across Australia included four instruments for assessing FSD. The Sexual Function Questionnaire combined with the Female Sexual Distress Scale (SFQ-FSDS) was employed as a standard, validated instrument. Alternative instruments were the SFQ alone and two modified versions of a set of questions originally developed by Laumann et al. Results When assessed by the SFQ-FSDS, prevalence estimates (and 95% confidence intervals) of Hypoactive Sexual Desire Disorder, Female Sexual Arousal Disorder (genital subtype), Female Orgasmic Disorder, and Dysparunia were 16%(11-20%), 8%(4-11%), 9%(6-13%), 2%(0.1-3%) respectively. The prevalence estimates of these same disorders obtained using alternative instruments were 32-55%, 17-35%, 17-33% and 3-25% respectively. The sensitivity of alternative instruments varied widely (0 to 1.0). Specificities ranged from 0.51 to 0.99. Positive predictive values ranged from 0 to 0.57. Negative predictive values were all above 0.90. Changing the time span for recalling sexual experiences in an instrument altered the prevalence estimates, sensitivity and specificity. 32% of women with low desire, 31% with low genital arousal, 36% with orgasm difficulty and 57% with sexual pain were sexually distressed. Conclusion Over a third of women who were classified as suffering FSD by alternative instruments did not have FSD when assessed by SFQ-FSDS. Alternative instruments produced substantially higher prevalence estimates of FSD and identified different groups of women. Consequently, the instruments researchers choose to assess FSD may affect both the prevalence estimates and risk factors they report.