Early childhood science education : do Australian publishing trends represent world publishing trends?

A literature search of both Australian early childhood journals and Australian science education journals provides a compelling picture of science education in Australian early childhood in the recent past and the previous 40 years. Whilst a previous review of the literature found that there were concerns over the early childhood educators' confidence in teaching science, particularly physical sciences, current research indicates that this problem is still prevalent. The historical perspective also found that there was a distinctive approach evolving in early childhood science education, however further research into the place of science in the cognitive domain of early childhood was required. The more recent literature search found that as an area of investigation, early childhood science is still a neglected research area and there is still much scope for the development of theories and analysis of early childhood science education. The literature search was undertaken scanning for titles which included science education and early childhood in several Australian early childhood journals and Australian science education journals, although it is acknowledged that some articles may have been sent to international journals.

Family-centred practice : empowerment, self-efficacy, and challenges for practitioners in early childhood education and care

Family-centred practice has been included in the Victoria, Australia Early Years Learning and Development Framework as a key practice principle for professionals working across all early years programs in that state. While this model of partnership for engaging and collaborating with families has long been used in the early intervention sector, the efficacy of adopting this model more widely across the wider early childhood education and care sector has not been explored. This article presents a discussion on family-centred practice as a model for engaging with families in the care and education of their children. Through an analysis of the underlying philosophy and an examination of the core principles and characteristics, the article explores family-centred practice as it sits within a broader theory of partnership. This analysis identifies that while there are essential principles and characteristics that position the model within a partnership framework, it is the notion of empowerment, an underpinning philosophy guiding the model, that adds another dimension to the way practitioners in early childhood education and care settings collaborate with families. In examining the broader early childhood context, the capacity of many early childhood practitioners to effectively implement empowering behaviours is challenged.

The appropriateness of opt-out consent for monitoring childhood obesity in Australia

Childhood obesity monitoring is a fundamental component of obesity prevention but is poorly done in Australia. Monitoring obesity prevalence in children provides important population health data that can be used to track trends over time, identify areas at greatest risk of obesity, determine the effectiveness of interventions and policies, raise awareness and stimulate action. High participation rates are essential for effective monitoring because these provide more representative data. Passive (‘opt-out’) consent has been shown to provide high participation rates in international childhood obesity monitoring programs and in a recent Australian federal initiative monitoring early child development. A federal initiative structured like existing child development monitoring programs, but with the authority to collect height and weight measurements using opt-out consent, is recommended to monitor rates of childhood obesity in Australia.

Come play with me : an argument to link autism spectrum disorders and anorexia nervosa through early childhood pretend play

This article builds on the argument of a link between behaviours observed in persons with autism spectrum disorders and persons with anorexia nervosa. In describing these behaviours, a link is made between deficits in social cognition, lack of flexible and creative thinking, theory of mind, and deficits in early pretend play ability. Early pretend play ability is a strong avenue to the development and strengthening of social cognition, problem solving, language, logical sequential thought, and understanding social situations. Currently, there is no literature on the pretend play ability of persons who develop anorexia nervosa. This article argues for research into this area which may potentially contribute to developments in new intervention strategies for these persons.

Three year follow-up of an early childhood intervention : is movement skill sustained?

Background
Movement skill competence (e.g. the ability to throw, run and kick) is a potentially important physical activity determinant. However, little is known about the long-term impact of interventions to improve movement skills in early childhood. This study aimed to determine whether intervention preschool children were still more skill proficient than controls three years after a 10 month movement skill focused intervention: ‘Tooty Fruity Vegie in Preschools’.

Methods
Children from 18 intervention and 13 control preschools in NSW, Australia were assessed at ages four (Time1), five (T2) and eight years (T3) for locomotor (run, gallop, hop, leap, horizontal jump, slide) and object control proficiency (strike, bounce, catch, kick, overhand throw, underhand roll) using the Test of Gross Motor Development-2. Multi-level object control and locomotor regression models were fitted with variables time, intervention (yes/no) and a time*intervention interaction. Both models added sex of child and retained if significant, in which case interactions of sex of child with other variables were modelled and retained. SPSS (Version 17.0) was used.

Results
Overall follow-up rate was 29% (163/560). Of the 137 students used in the regression models, 53% were female (n = 73). Intervention girls maintained their object control skill advantage in comparison to controls at T3 (p = .002), but intervention boys did not (p = .591). At T3, there were no longer intervention/control differences in locomotor skill (p = .801).

Conclusion
Early childhood settings should implement movement skill interventions and more intensively target girls and object control skills.

Beginning the search for core principles underpinning literacy development in the early years

Providing opportunities for all people to become literate is now a global imperative (World Bank 2008). There are many and varied reasons underlying this emphasis including global, national, community and personal perspectives (Friere & Macedo 2000) and countries world-wide are investing more money into their early childhood programs and the development of associated policies (Oberhuemer 2005). From a socio-cultural view, literacy development is emergent, ongoing (Cook-Gumperz 2006) and multifaceted (New London Group 1999). Literacy involves far more than reading and writing and encompasses listening, speaking and critical thinking (Department of Education, Science and Training 2005, Luke & Freebody 1997). Literacy is not merely a curricular area, but an important empowering life skill (Harrison 2012, Friere & Macedo 2000). It seems logical then, to search for and identify if there are core principles underpinning early years literacy development.In seeking to identify core principles for emergent literacy development, the study reported here adopted Wiersma & Jurs' (2005) 'Four Step' Historical Research methodological approach involving the identification of a research problem, collection and evaluation of source materials, synthesis of information from the source materials and finally, the analysis, interpretation and the formulation of conclusions. The historical research approach requires creative interpretation (Keastle 1988) and is valued for its effectiveness in sourcing ideas, enlightening current debates, empowering decision-making (Stricker 1992) and influencing policy formation (Wiersma & Jurs 2005).This study involved analysis of Early Years Language and Emergent Literacy Research from the past decade, sourced via education and social sciences databases, as well as information gathered from correspondence with Australian government departments, their websites and policies. The findings from a synthesis of these data sources led to the identification of nine core principles viewed as underpinning children's emergent literacy development. Interested in exploring the relevance and application of these principles to the field of early childhood in Australia, additionally, the researcher has embarked upon a mapping exercise that reveals how the recently introduced Early Years Learning Frameworks align with these principles. Furthermore, in recognition of the importance of the early years as a crucial time in a child's literacy development (Cook-Gumperz 2006, Raban & Nolan 2005, Hall, Larson & Marsh 2003), it is argued that these literacy principles will be valuable to the development of a range of educational tools to be used by Pre-service and practicing Early years educators.

Tracking of dietary intakes in early childhood : the Melbourne InFANT program

Background/Objectives: The objectives of the present study were to describe food and nutrient intakes in children aged 9 and 18 months, and to assess tracking of intakes between these two ages.

Subjects/Methods: Participants were 177 children of first-time mothers from the control arm of the Melbourne Infant Feeding Activity and Nutrition Trial (InFANT) Program. Dietary intake was collected at 9 and 18 months using three 24 h diet recalls. Tracking was assessed for food and nutrient intakes using logistic regression analysis and estimating partial correlation coefficients, respectively.

Results: Although overall nutrient intakes estimated in this study did not indicate a particular risk of nutrient deficiency, our findings suggest that consumption of energy-dense, nutrient-poor foods occurred as early as 9 months of age, with some of these foods tracking highly over the weaning period. Intakes of healthier foods such as fruits, vegetables, dairy products, eggs, fish and water were also relatively stable over this transition from infancy to toddlerhood, along with moderate tracking for riboflavin, iodine, fibre, calcium and iron. Tracking was low but close to ρ=0.3 for zinc, magnesium and potassium intakes.

Conclusions: The tracking of energy-dense, nutrient-poor foods has important implications for public health, given the development of early eating behaviours is likely to be modifiable. At this stage of life, dietary intakes are largely influenced by the foods parents provide, parental feeding practices and modelling. This study supports the importance of promoting healthy dietary trajectories from infancy.

Young learners : teachers' questions and prompts as opportunities for children's language development

One highly regarded context for language learning is book reading, as teachers engage children in discussions around texts read. However, there is considerable variation in teachers’ patterns of talk that mediate this learning with preschool children’s oral language development dependent on the opportunities for engagement in language use provided by teachers. To explore the affordances of talk interactions within book reading a systematic analysis of teachers’ questions and children’s responses was undertaken. Results of this analysis show that the highest proportion of questions asked by this group of 18 preschool teachers were closed questions with a small proportion of open teaching questions asked. However, while open questions provided the most substantial opportunities for children’s extended talk, the range of questions asked provided opportunities for preschool teachers to extend children’s responses, support children’s understanding of the text, develop vocabulary and world knowledge, and to model more complex language structures.

The development and validation of an urbanicity scale in a multi-country study

Background : Although urban residence is consistently identified as one of the primary correlates of non-communicable disease in low- and middle-income countries, it is not clear why or how urban settings predispose individuals and populations to non-communicable disease (NCD), or how this relationship could be modified to slow the spread of NCD. The urban–rural dichotomy used in most population health research lacks the nuance and specificity necessary to understand the complex relationship between urbanicity and NCD risk. Previous studies have developed and validated quantitative tools to measure urbanicity continuously along several dimensions but all have been isolated to a single country. The purposes of this study were 1) To assess the feasibility and validity of a multi-country urbanicity scale; 2) To report some of the considerations that arise in applying such a scale in different countries; and, 3) To assess how this scale compares with previously validated scales of urbanicity.

Methods : Household and community-level data from the Young Lives longitudinal study of childhood poverty in 59 communities in Ethiopia, India and Peru collected in 2006/2007 were used. Household-level data include parents’ occupations and education level, household possessions and access to resources. Community-level data include population size, availability of health facilities and types of roads. Variables were selected for inclusion in the urbanicity scale based on inspection of the data and a review of literature on urbanicity and health. Seven domains were constructed within the scale: Population Size, Economic Activity, Built Environment, Communication, Education, Diversity and Health Services.

Results : The scale ranged from 11 to 61 (mean 35) with significant between country differences in mean urbanicity; Ethiopia (30.7), India (33.2), Peru (39.4). Construct validity was supported by factor analysis and high corrected item-scale correlations suggest good internal consistency. High agreement was observed between this scale and a dichotomized version of the urbanicity scale (Kappa 0.76; Spearman’s rank-correlation coefficient 0.84 (p < 0.0001). Linear regression of socioeconomic indicators on the urbanicity scale supported construct validity in all three countries (p < 0.05).

Conclusions : This study demonstrates and validates a robust multidimensional, multi-country urbanicity scale. It is an important step on the path to creating a tool to assess complex processes like urbanization. This scale provides the means to understand which elements of urbanization have the greatest impact on health.

Study protocol: the childhood to adolescence transition study (CATS)

Background
Puberty is a multifaceted developmental process that begins in late-childhood with a cascade of endocrine changes that ultimately lead to sexual maturation and reproductive capability. The transition through puberty is marked by an increased risk for the onset of a range of health problems, particularly those related to the control of behaviour and emotion. Early onset puberty is associated with a greater risk of cancers of the reproductive tract and cardiovascular disease. Previous studies have had methodological limitations and have tended to view puberty as a unitary process, with little distinction between adrenarche, gonadarche and linear growth. The Childhood to Adolescence Transition Study (CATS) aims to prospectively examine associations between the timing and stage of the different hormonally-mediated changes, as well as the onset and course of common health and behavioural problems that emerge in the transition from childhood to adolescence. The initial focus of CATS is on adrenarche, the first hormonal process in the pubertal cascade, which begins for most children at around 8 years of age.

Methods/Design
CATS is a longitudinal population-based cohort study. All Grade 3 students (8–9 years of age) from a stratified cluster sample of schools in Melbourne, Australia were invited to take part. In total, 1239 students and a parent/guardian were recruited to participate in the study. Measures are repeated annually and comprise student, parent and teacher questionnaires, and student anthropometric measurements. A saliva sample was collected from students at baseline and will be repeated at later waves, with the primary purpose of measuring hormonal indices of adrenarche and gonadarche.

Discussion
CATS is uniquely placed to capture biological and phenotypic indices of the pubertal process from its earliest manifestations, together with anthropometric measures and assessment of child health and development. The cohort will provide rich detail of the development, lifestyle, external circumstances and health of children during the transition from childhood through to adolescence. Baseline associations between the hormonal measures and measures of mental health and behaviour will initially be examined cross-sectionally, and then in later waves longitudinally. CATS will make a unique contribution to the understanding of adrenarche and puberty in children’s health and development.

Helicobacter pylori-associated hypochlorhydria in children, and development of iron deficiency

Aims Acute Helicobacter pylori infection is associated with transient hypochlorhydria. In H pylori-associated atrophy, hypochlorhydria has a role in iron deficiency (ID) through changes in the physiology of iron-complex absorption. The aims were to evaluate the association between H pylori-associated hypochlorhydria and ID in children. Methods Symptomatic children (n=123) were prospectively enrolled. Blood, gastric juice and gastric biopsies were taken, respectively, for haematological analyses, pH assessment and H pylori determination, and duodenal biopsies for exclusion of coeliac disease. Stool samples were collected for parasitology/microbiology. Thirteen children were excluded following parasitology and duodenal histopathology, and five due to impaired blood analysis. Results Ten children were hypochlorhydric (pH>4) and 33 were H pylori positive. In H pylori-positive children with pH>4 (n=6) serum iron and transferrin saturation levels % were significantly lower (p<0.01) than H pylori-positive children with pH≤4. No differences in ferritin, or total iron binding capacity, were observed. In H pylori-negative children with pH>4, iron and transferrin saturation were not significantly different from children with pH≤4. Conclusions Low serum iron and transferrin in childhood H pylori infection is associated with hypochlorhydria. In uninfected children, hypochlorhydria was not associated with altered serum iron parameters, indicating a combination of H pylori infection and/or inflammation, and hypochlorhydria has a role in the aetiology of ID. Although H pylori-associated hypochlorhydria is transient during acute gastritis, this alters iron homeostasis with clinical impact in developing countries with a high H pylori prevalence.

Childhood neurodevelopmental factors and risk of psychotic experiences in early adolescence: genotypic variation and developmental endophenotypes

This thesis was about understanding the childhood developmental factors that may lead to psychotic experiences in early adolescence. It also contributed to efforts towards preventative strategies for children with a high risk of psychotic symptoms, and arguably schizophrenia. Based on the findings, the author concluded, that further research on this topic should focus on the development of early detection methods and interventions for high risk children.

Childhood overweight and obesity: paternal influences on preschool aged children's eating and weight status

This thesis explored the role of paternal parenting styles, paternal child feeding practices, and father-child interactions in the development of preschool aged children’s eating behaviours and weight. Fathers parenting style and feeding practices were not directly associated with child BMI. However, fathers parenting style was predictive of child eating behaviours over time, and children's eating behaviours were associated with higher BMI, which suggests that there may be an indirect effect of parenting style on child BMI via child eating behaviour.

Exploration of the Australian Early Development Index for children with language backgrounds other than English

The Australian Early Development Index (AEDI) is a teacher-administered measure that indicates if children are starting school with the developmental capacity to take advantage of the school learning environment. A key question that arises for schools, communities, and policy makers is how valid the AEDI is for children from a Language Background Other Than English (LBOTE). This study investigated how adequately the AEDI captures the cultural variety of different behaviours and different ways of learning. The study also examined the cultural inclusivity and relevance of the AEDI materials (e.g., teacher training guidelines; administration manual). Ten focus groups (n=84) and various community consultations were conducted with early childhood education and development professionals, representing key service providers, and school personnel. The findings from these studies led to the following recommendations: For LBOTE children, the AEDI should ideally be completed in collaboration, for example, between the child’s teacher and a multicultural consultant. The teacher guidelines for the AEDI need to be enhanced with respect to issues pertaining to LBOTE children, and the AEDI should include additional domains, such as cultural competence and home based/first language skills. Finally, teacher preparation and the AEDI administration guidelines need to clarify and emphasize the intent of the AEDI.