Pregnancy : physical and body image changes

Body dissatisfaction is often associated with negative psychological functioning, such as depression, and maladaptive behaviors, such as unhealthy eating and extreme weight loss behaviors, which have serious negative implications for women’s health and well-being, and potentially also for the unborn fetus during pregnancy. This article summarizes contemporary research in the area of body image during pregnancy, showing the development of knowledge in this area with increasing research interest in this topic in more recent times.

Body image during pregnancy: an evaluation of the suitability of the body attitudes questionnaire

Background: 

A qualitative study of preadolescent boys' and girls' body image: gendered ideals and sociocultural influences

This qualitative study examined preadolescent boys’ and girls’ body ideals, and peer and media factors that shape these ideals. Sixty-eight children aged 8–10 participated in semi-structured interviews: 19 boys and 17 girls in individual interviews and 16 boys and 16 girls in eight group interviews. Techniques from grounded theory were used to analyze the data. Findings demonstrated that fitness was an important element of boys’ and girls’ body ideals. For boys the emphasis was on sport, and this was promoted by their peer interactions and the sportsmen they admired. For girls the focus was on looking good, and this was reinforced by their peer conversations, and the actresses and singers they admired. Focus groups further highlighted how peers both reinforced media messages, yet also helped children critique media messages. Implications are discussed for prevention programs that need to be specifically tailored for boys and girls.

Understanding the link between body image and binge eating: a model comparison approach

Purpose
The present study tests several competing, explanatory models—dual pathways, escape from awareness, and objectification theory—for the established link between body dissatisfaction and binge eating.

Methods
408 women aged between 18 and 40 years completed a survey designed to assess contributions of proposed mediators (dietary restraint and negative affect from the dual pathway model, self-distraction from the escape from awareness model, and interoceptive deficits from objectification theory) for the body dissatisfaction–binge eating relationship.

Results
Although mediation analyses supported the dual pathway model and objectification theory when tested separately, the dual pathway model most strongly predicted the body dissatisfaction–binge eating relationship. Both model-implied mediators (dietary restraint and negative affect) made significant unique contributions, accounting for roughly one-quarter of the shared variance between body dissatisfaction and binge eating when tested separately from other mediators. Improvements in variance explained were negligible once other proposed mediators were included in a test of models combined.

Conclusions
Collectively, these findings suggest the superiority of the dual pathway model over objectification theory and the escape model, but the remaining unaccounted for covariance suggests need to consider alternative mechanisms that may also account for the relationship between body dissatisfaction and binge eating.

Social media and body image concerns: further considerations and broader perspectives

In this paper we provide a commentary on Perloff’s theoretical perspectives and agenda for research that examines the effects of social media on young women’s body image concerns. Social media are the main form of mass media being used by the youth of today, and researchers in the U.S. and Australia have commenced studying how these may be affecting body image concerns. However, the processes underlying how social media may influence young people’s body image appear to be no different from underlying other forms of mass media. Research is needed to more fully evaluate youth’s experiences of online appearance culture and how this may foster both negative and positive peer interactions. We also need more studies which compare the influences on social media with other media forms as there is no clear evidence that social networking sites and other forms of social media are more detrimental to one’s body image than other forms of media. We also consider factors that may protect young people from internalizing appearance ideals that are promoted by the mass media. In addition, we consider broader conceptualizations of body image so that a wider range of human experiences can be studied.

A cross-cultural study investigating body features associated with male adolescents' body dissatisfaction in Australia, China, and Malaysia

This study investigated how dissatisfaction with particular aspects of the body was associated with overall body dissatisfaction among male adolescents in Western and Asian cultures. One hundred and six Malaysian Malays, 55 Malaysian Chinese, 195 Chinese from China, and 45 non-Asian Australians aged 12 to 19 years completed a questionnaire assessing dissatisfaction with their overall body and dissatisfaction with varying aspects of their body. Dissatisfaction with the face, height, and hair was positively correlated with overall body dissatisfaction among Malaysian Malays after body mass index, age and dissatisfaction with body areas typically included in measures (weight/shape, upper, middle, and lower body, and muscles) had been controlled for. Dissatisfaction with the face was positively correlated with overall body dissatisfaction among Malaysian Chinese. These findings demonstrate the differences in body focus for males from different cultures and the importance of using assessment measures that address all possible areas of body focus.

An educational programme for parents on the body image of preschool-aged boys

This study was designed to increase parents' awareness of their role in their preschool child's body image and increase positive body image attitudes. In total, 118 parents (54 intervention, 64 control) of boys aged -3-6 years completed a two-session educational workshop. At post-test and the 3 months' follow-up, parents in the intervention group compared to the control group reported a greater level of perceived knowledge on how they may influence their son's body image and a greater level of body appreciation. These results indicate that educational workshops are effective in improving parents' knowledge to improve their son's body image.

Preteen boys, body image, and eating disorders

In recent years, academic and public attention has increasingly focused on the issue of men’s preoccupation with body image and the increasing incidence of eating disorders among men. Although most of this focus has been on young and adult males, media discourse has tended to extend explanations for men’s aspirations for social body ideals to explanations for eating disorders in young boys. In this article, we take a critical look at the way the boys/body image/eating disorder nexus has been represented in some of the mainstream media. In particular, we propose that the boys/body image/eating disorder nexus has been constituted as a truth that tends to underplay the complexity of the relationship between eating disorders and boys’ dissatisfaction with their bodies, as recognized by researchers and health practitioners, and as evident from our own study of preteen boys diagnosed with an eating disorder. In this article, we use interviews with the six boys and their mothers collected for our study to construct short family biographies. These

Children's body image and social comparisons with peers and the media

Social comparisons are related to the development of body dissatisfaction among adolescents and adults, yet this relationship remains relatively unexamined among children. This study examines children's peer and media-related social comparisons, and how this impacts on their body image. Children aged 8-10 years completed interviews (17 girls and 19 boys in individual interviews, and 16 girls and 16 boys in focus groups). Analyses revealed that appearance-related comparisons were more common among girls, whereas sports/ability-related comparisons were more common for boys. In addition, boys viewed media comparisons as inspiring, whereas girls reported negative emotions. Implications for future research and prevention programmes are discussed.

How is men's conformity to masculine norms related to their body image? Masculinity and muscularity across western countries

Previous research has suggested that men's conformity to masculine norms (CMN) is an important correlate of men's drive for muscularity. The present study aimed to further delineate the relationship between masculinity and men's body image by examining various dimensions of CMN in relation to various dimensions of men's body image (muscularity, leanness, and fitness) in a cross-national sample. Participants comprised young men from the United States (n = 192), the United Kingdom (n = 141), Australia (n = 160), and Sweden (n = 142). Multigroup path analyses showed that CMN was related to drive for muscularity, leanness, and fitness in all 4 countries, but there were differences across countries in which dimensions of CMN predicted men's body image. Whereas conformity to the masculine norm of winning was a salient predictor across the 4 countries, conformity to the norm of risk-taking was linked to Australian men's body image, and conformity to the norm of violence to British men's body image. The findings support previous research suggesting that men's endorsement of the male gender role plays a significant role in their desire for an ideal body, but the results uniquely document that this relationship may differ across countries.

Fat talk and its relationship with body image disturbance

Although past studies have highlighted fat talk as relevant to body image disturbance, the majority of these have only investigated the link between fat talk and body esteem, to the exclusion of other body image constructs. One hundred and ninety-nine women completed an online survey measuring levels of appearance-based comparisons, body surveillance, thin ideal internalization, body esteem, and fat talk (FT-body concerns and FT-body comparisons). Results showed that fat talk made a significant contribution in explaining additional variance in body esteem above the other three body image factors, with FT-body concerns in particular making the highest unique contribution. Hierarchical regression analyses suggest that fat talk should be viewed as an independent psychosocial predictor of body esteem in both theoretical and therapeutic contexts. Future research should explore these relationships from a longitudinal perspective, and also clarify the nuances in the relationships by investigating the nature of women's everyday body image experiences.

The structure of the perceived sociocultural influences on body image and body change questionnaire

This article is concerned with the development and evaluation of the Perceived Sociocultural Influences on Body Image and Body Change Questionnaire. The scale was designed to assess the perceived nature of feedback received from mother, father, best male friend, and best female friend to gain weight, lose weight, and increase muscle tone. The perceived feedback from the media on each of these areas also was assessed. Exploratory factor analysis was conducted with 240 adolescent boys (mean age = 13.83 years) and 204 adolescent girls (mean age = 13.70 years). A 3-factor structure was found for the 4 scales that related to perceived feedback from mother, father, best male friend, and best female friend. Feedback on muscle tone loaded with both weight loss and weight gain. The three factors related to (a) general feedback; (b) encourage, tease, and modeling to gain weight and increase muscle tone, and (c) encourage, tease, and modeling to lose weight and increase muscle tone. The factor structure and the items that made up these factors were the same for both boys and girls for each of the 4 scales. The Perceived Media Influences Scale formed 3 factors for girls. These factors related to gaining weight, losing weight, and increasing muscle tone. For boys, the same 9 items formed a single factor. The same items were retained for boys and girls. A confirmatory factor analysis with 822 adolescents (382 boys, mean age = 14.02 years; 440 girls, mean age = 13.82 years) confirmed the previously described factor structure. These results demonstrate that the Perceived Sociocultural Influences on Body Image and Body Change Questionnaire is able to assess body image and body change strategies that are relevant for both boys and girls.

Body image and body change techniques among young adolescent boys

The aim of the present study was to examine the level of body image disturbance among adolescent boys and to determine how body image disturbance was related to body change techniques. Twenty boys from year 7 (mean age = 12.55 years, SD = 0.61) and 20 boys from year 9 (mean age = 14.85 years, SD = 0.59) were interviewed individually about their body image and body change strategies. The boys were questioned about the importance and their satisfaction with their weight, body size, body shape, muscle tone and parts of their body and the frequency with which they used the following techniques: eating less to lose weight, eating more to gain weight, and exercise to change body size, shape or muscle tone. The results demonstrated that of those boys who wanted to change their body (50 per cent), 12 wanted to lose weight and eight wanted to gain weight. The most frequent strategy used to change body size or shape was exercise, rather than changing eating patterns. Year 7 boys were more satisfied with their weight than year 9 boys, and boys with a larger body mass index (BMI) were less satisfied with their muscle tone and more likely to change their eating habits to decrease their body size or shape than boys with a smaller BMI. The implications of these findings for obtaining a better understanding of how male body image and body change strategies are different from girls are discussed.

Body image and strategies to lose weight and increase muscle among boys and girls

This study examined factors that influence body image and strategies to either lose weight or increase muscle among children. Participants were 237 boys and 270 girls. Body mass index (BMI), body dissatisfaction, cognitions and behaviors to both lose weight and increase muscles, as well as self-esteem and positive and negative affect, were evaluated. Self-esteem was associated with body satisfaction, positive affect predicted strategies to lose weight and increase muscles, and negative affect predicted body dissatisfaction and cognitions to lose weight and increase muscles. Boys were more likely to focus on changing muscles. Respondents with higher BMIs were more focused on losing weight but not muscle. The discussion focuses on health risk behaviors related to eating and exercise among children.