Games within games: gambling and trickery in professional running

Professional running is an overtly gambling sport in which a clear objective is to maximise winnings from the bookmakers, which is achieved through a careful concealment of a runner&rsquo;s ability. Professional runners seldom win more than one significant race. Races are deliberately lost until runners acquire a sufficiently lenient handicap to significantly improve their chances of winning a race of their choosing. Successes, kudos and identities in this sport are evaluated from the cleverness of the win, largely measured by the trainer&rsquo;s effectiveness in executing a gambling coup. The money prizes given to runners may be significantly bettered from gambling winnings and making the most of these is the major emphasis for most successful runners and trainers. Drawing from an ethnographic study of this sport in Australia, the paper argues that the gambling strategies of runners and trainers can be understood as zero-sum games.<br />

Understanding the leisure motives of visitors to tourist attractions

In a period when tourism is contracting, and in a destination with an extensive range of visitor attractions, the importance of local residents visitation is accentuated. The aim of this study was to explore whether there are differences across segments of the local resident market in terms of their motives for engaging in leisure activities within the context of tourist attractions. This study was set within the context of Melbourne, Australia. Melbourne has changed in recent years in terms of the range of attractions available to residents. A sample of 1005 local residents was used as the basis of this study. Cluster analysis was used to segment the sample, based on the intended frequency of visitation to a set of attractions. The motives for engaging in leisure were then explored for each of the segments using Unger and Kernan's (1983) Subjective Leisure Scale (SLS), which encompasses six motivational domains namely intrinsic satisfaction, perceived freedom, arousal, mastery, involvement and spontaneity, was applied in this study of leisure activities was used as the basis of identifying the motives for visiting the attractions.<br />

Jogging all the way to choir: changes in Australian leisure and culture

This paper presents definitions of leisure in Australian society, discusses various forms of leisure and its importance to the individual, community and nation. Recent observed changes to the nature of leisure are presented. It appears as though a shift from individual consumption to collective production of leisure is occurring; for example, &quot;jogging all the way to choir&quot;.<br />

The profit-driven action sport industry working within the not-for-profit Australian sport system : the case of freestyle BMX Australia and the Australian sports commission

When not-for-profit organisations and for-profit organisations are forced to work together, conflict can arise. This paper explores the tensions that have resulted in the Australian sport setting when the Australian Sport Commission (ASC), with its emphasis predominantly directed at not for profit sport, sought to embrace the traditionally for profit sport of Freestyle BMX into the mainstream sport system. This case study traces the development and implementation of the ASC's Street Active program through Freestyle BMX. It was found that Freestyle BMX experienced mission drift and did not provide a product or service relevant to its consumers by adhering to the guidelines required by the ASC. Further, in the development of the program, the ASC did not expect the rivalry between suppliers in the free market action sport industry when it engaged three management groups to deliver the Street Active program. As a result the action sport industry is further fragmented into for-profit agencies, and farther removed from the Australia's federal governing agency, the ASC.<br />

Consumer complaint behaviour in sport consumption: a theoretical model

In this study, traditional consumer complaint behaviours (CCBs) are re-examined in an experiential context; specifically, the consumption of live sport. It is proposed that these behaviours are not motivated by the &ldquo;traditional&rdquo; antecedents, and further, that they are not enacted with the purpose of reducing dissonance. Instead, it would appear that traditional CCBs, such as private responses, direct voicing and third party action take on a more functional role in the sport consumption experience. The possibility exists that for some spectators, these CCBs, which have been traditionally classified as negative, actually contribute to overall enjoyment of, and satisfaction with, a sport consumption experience. A review of literature in the area is presented, and a theoretical model of CCB in the experiential context is offered.<br />

Consumer complaint behaviour in sport consumption

While consumer complaint behaviour, and specifically voicing, has been extensively investigated from the perspective of goods (see Volkov et al., 2003, for a review), there have been fewer studies investigating consumer voicing with regard to services (Andreasen, 1984, 1985; Singh, 1988, 1990; Zeithaml, Berry, &amp; Parasuraman, 1996). Further, no research can be identified in the extant literature with respect to experiential consumer voicing. This research proposes an examination of voicing behaviour of consumers in an experiential consumption setting and uses sport consumption as the context. A review of literature in the area is presented and a proposal for experiential research is offered.<br /><br />In experiential consumption settings, consumers are more likely to experience emotional reactions to, and be actively involved in, the experience than in traditional consumption episodes (Addis &amp; Holbrook, 2001; Hoffman, Kumar, &amp; Novak, 2003; Lofman, 1991). Further, experiential consumption episodes<br />involve greater emotional processing, more activity, more evaluation, but less overall cognitive processing than traditional episodes (Lofman, 1991), which in turn is likely to result in different consumer behaviour in these experiential settings.<br /><br />Tn this study, traditional consumer complaint behaviours are re-examined in an experiential context; specifically, consumption of live sport. It is proposed that these behaviours are not motivated by the traditional antecedents of anger and involvement and, further, that they are not enacted with the purpose of<br />reducing dissonance. Instead, it would appear that traditional complaint behaviour concepts such as voicing, overt aggression, and assignment of blame take on a more functional role in the sport consumption experience. The possibility exists that for some spectators these complaining behaviours that have traditionally been cJassitIed as negative, actually contribute to overall enjoyment o( and satisfaction with, a sport consumption experience.<br />

Consumer construction of sport consumption experiences through role play : a literature review

Evidence exists in the literature that many traditional consumer behaviours have fundamentally different meanings when considered in an experiential context. This paper posits that voicing during the experiential consumption of sport may in fact be a factor of experiential consumption rather than an expression of dissatisfaction as in the traditional complaint behaviour model. This is significant in the interpretation of experiential sport consumption where vocalising appears to serve purposes other than complaining. This paper revises the traditional complaint behaviour literature for explanations about vocalising and then offers some alternate conceptual propositions using experiential consumption literature.<br />

Wrestling with `conflict of interest` in sport management

<b>Purpose </b>&ndash; The purpose of this paper is to discuss how the relationship between sport and business has increased the complexity of ethical issues affecting contemporary sport management. Specifically, this paper seeks to define conflict of interest and how it is manifested in both business and sport.<br /><b>Design/methodology/approach</b> &ndash; The paper provides a conceptual discussion of the issue of conflict of interest as it relates to the management and governance of sports organizations. Relationships between business ethics, governance and sport management are examined in the quest to understand conflict of interest and its prevalence in and relevance to sport management.<br /><b>Findings </b>&ndash; Conflicts of interest within the sport industry may have the same structural elements as those occurring in mainstream business, such as benefits, obligations and issues of trust, but it is the higher societal expectations and values placed on sport and sporting organizations that provide the key points of difference.<br /><b>Practical implications</b> &ndash; Through collaboration with sport management practitioners, via inductive in-depth research, a clearer definition of conflict of interest and the range of situations in which it may occur can be developed. It is through a continued research effort in this area that sport managers will be better able to both identify and manage conflicts of interest as they occur.<br /><b>Originality/value</b> &ndash; It is the lack of definitive examples or guidelines for recognition of an actual or a potential conflict of interest that appears to cause the greatest confusion within sport management. By drawing together the key concepts found within the extant literature, a clearer understanding of what constitutes a conflict of interest is provided by this paper. <br />

The sport Injury Rehabilitation Adherence Scale : a reliable scale for use in clinical physiotherapy

<b>Objective</b><br />To evaluate, through two studies, the factor structure, inter-rater agreement, and test&ndash;retest and inter-rater reliability of the Sport Injury Rehabilitation Adherence Scale (SIRAS).<br /><br /><b>Design</b><br />Repeated measures design in both Study 1 (video evaluation) and Study 2 (clinical evaluation).<br /><br /><b>Setting</b><br />University department (Study 1) and outpatient physiotherapy department (Study 2).<br /><b><br />Participants</b><br />Sixty physiotherapists and physiotherapy students in Study 1 and 45 patients undergoing physiotherapy treatment for a musculoskeletal injury in Study 2.<br /><br /><b>Intervention</b><br />In Study 1, participants rated the adherence of a simulated videotaped patient demonstrating high, moderate and low adherence during rehabilitation. In Study 2, two physiotherapists rated the adherence of patients at two consecutive rehabilitation sessions.<br /><br /><b>Main outcome measure</b><br />The SIRAS.<br /><br /><b>Results</b><br />In Study 1, principal components analysis confirmed a single factor for the SIRAS, and inter-rater agreement values ranged from 0.87 to 0.93. In Study 2, inter-rater and test&ndash;retest reliability coefficients ranged from 0.76 [95% confidence interval (CI) 0.54 to 0.83] to 0.89 (95% CI 0.79 to 0.95), and from 0.63 (95% CI 0.36&ndash;0.82) to 0.76 (95% CI 0.55&ndash;0.88), respectively.<br /><br /><b>Conclusion</b><br />The SIRAS is a reliable measure with high inter-rater agreement when used to evaluate clinic-based adherence to physiotherapy rehabilitation for musculoskeletal injury.<br />

Sun exposure and sun protection behaviours among young adult sport competitors

<b>Objective: </b>To explore the relationship between sun protection and physical activity in young adults (18-30 years) involved in four organised sports.<br /><br /><b>Methods:</b> Participants (n=237) in field hockey, soccer, tennis and surf sports completed a self-administered survey on demographic and sun-protective behaviours while playing sport. Differences in sun-protective behaviour were explored by sport and by gender.<br /><br /><b>Results:</b> Sunburn during the previous sporting season was high (69%). There were differences between sports for sunburn, sunscreen use and reapplication of sunscreen. Lifesaving had the highest rates compared with the other three sports. Hats and sunglasses worn by participants varied significantly by sports. A greater proportion of soccer and hockey players indicated they were not allowed to wear a hat or sunglasses during competition. For all sports, competition was played mainly in the open with no shade provision for competitors while they were playing. There were some gender differences within each of the sports. Female soccer and tennis players were more likely to wear sunscreen compared with males. Female hockey players were more likely to wear a hat compared with males.<br /><br /><b>Conclusions:</b> Our findings highlight that there is still room for improvement in sun-protective behaviours among young adult sport competitors. There is a need for a systematic approach to sun protection in the sporting environments of young adults.<br /><br /><b>Implications:</b> Health promotion efforts to increase physical activity need to be paired with sun protection messages.<br />

Isn't sport taxing? The taxation of sports professionals post-Agassi

In Agassi v Robinson (Her Majesty��s Inspector of Taxes), a majority of the House of Lords found that payments under two sponsorship contracts between a company owned and controlled by Mr Andre Agassi, (Agassi Enterprises Inc) and Nike Inc and Head Sport AG were assessable under UK tax law. This was so despite (i) none of the parties to the contracts was resident, nor domiciled, in the United Kingdom and (ii) none of the payer companies conducted business, directly or indirectly, through branches/agencies in the United Kingdom. The article considers whether the Australian Taxation Office could similarly assess non���resident sports���persons, like Mr Agassi, personally, and/or entities they control, on payments made under sponsorship agreements with a company such as Nike Inc. While the preferable view is that such payments are not sourced in Australia, Australian source rules are so ill defined that there is some basis for asserting such payments are sourced in Australia. <br /><br />

Assessing sport management journals : a multi-dimensional examination

The rating of refereed journals has become important for academics and institutions as well as for sport management as a field of study. This paper argues that the dearth of a rating system in sport management works against the best interests of the development of the field. This paper presents a rating scheme for sport management journals, which replicates an earlier study of marketing journals, using weighted multi-dimensional perceptual ratings (Polonsky &amp; Whitelaw, 2006). Forty-five senior sport management academics evaluated 13 journals on four criteria: journal prestige, contribution to theory, contribution to practice and contribution to teaching. Using the weighted scores of the four criteria for each journal and a supporting cluster analysis, four categories of journals were identified. The results of this study will assist academics as they argue the case for the quality of journals in which they publish. Further it facilitates evaluation of sport management journals in relation to one another on the basis of their overall ranking and their scores on the four individual criteria.<br />

The impact of technology on the supply of sport broadcasting

The demand for sport content by broadcasting organizations has undergone a major redefinition in the last 15-20 years. Television has become predominantly a private good, subject to deregulation and technological revolution. The traditional approach to presenting sport content predominantly live and exclusive through one distribution channel has evolved considerably into one represented now by a multi-faceted, multi-organizational approach. This paper will introduce the two markets of sport and broadcasting through the supply network of broadcasting rights and sports programming, and how this network is affected by the emerging broadcasting technology that is appearing in the digital environment. The era of digital broadcasting creates a significant alteration to the supply of broadcasting content developed by professional sport leagues, competitions and events. A number of emerging distribution system components linked to the digital environment can be identified and associated with sport broadcasting, all of which are having a profound impact on the way sport is being presented now and into the future. The various distribution components are introduced and examined in terms of their impact on the professional sport broadcasting markets. Each distribution component is addressed from the perspective of the regulatory, marketing, and economic impacts on channel management that apply. <br />