Charismatic marine mega-fauna: some recent discoveries and future challenges

 The last 20 years have been exciting times for scientists working with charismatic marine mega-fauna. Here recent advances are reviewed. There have been advances in both data gathering and data-analysis techniques that have allowed new insights into the physiological and behavioural ecology of free-ranging mega-faunal species; some marine mega-faunal species have now become model organisms for cutting edge approaches to identify the underlying mathematical properties of animal search patterns and hence the underlying behavioural processes (e.g. Levy flight versus Brownian motion); the implications of climate change have started to become more apparent with extended time-series of animal movements, abundance and performance; conservation issues have become integrated into marine planning and have resulted in the advent of extended networks of marine protected areas (MPAs) as well as large MPAs that span many 100,000 km2; and collaborative crossdisciplinary teams have started to reveal the importance of ocean currents in animal dispersal, the ontogeny of migration and population genetic structure. Looking to the future, increased data availability (e.g. through data sharing) will likely allow more holistic across-taxa analyses to become routine.
© 2013 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Building Nature’s Safety Net 2014 : A decade of protected area achievements in Australia

The single most important asset for the conservation of Australia’s unique and globally significant biodiversity is the National Reserve System, a mosaic of over 10,000 discrete protected areas on land on all tenures: government, Indigenous and private,including on-farm covenants, as well as state, territory and Commonwealth marine parks and reserves.THE NATIONAL RESERVE SYSTEMIn this report, we cover major National Reserve System initiatives that have occurred in the period 2002 to the present and highlight issues affecting progress toward agreed national objectives. We define a minimum standard for the National Reserve System to comprehensively, adequately and representatively protect Australia’s ecosystem and species diversity on sea and land. Using government protected area, species and other relevant spatial data, we quantify gaps: those areas needing to move from the current National Reserve System to one which meets this standard. We also provide new estimates of financial investments in protected areas and of the benefits that protected areas secure for society. Protected areas primarily serve to secure Australia’s native plants and animals against extinction, and to promote their recovery.BENEFITSProtected areas also secure ecosystem services that provide economic benefits forhuman communities including water, soil and beneficial species conservation, climatemoderation, social, cultural and health benefits. On land, we estimate these benefitsare worth over $38 billion a year, by applying data collated by the Ecosystem ServicesPartnership. A much larger figure is estimated to have been secured by marineprotected areas in the form of moderation of climate and impact of extreme eventsby reef and mangrove ecosystems. While these estimates have not been verified bystudies specific to Australia, they are indicative of a very large economic contributionof protected areas. Visitors to national parks and nature reserves spend over $23.6 billion a year in Australia, generating tax revenue for state and territory governments of $2.36 billion a year. All these economic benefits taken together greatly exceed the aggregate annual protected area expansion and management spending by all Australian governments, estimated to be ~$1.28 billion a year. It is clear that Australian society is benefiting far greater than its governments’ investment into strategic growth and maintenance of the National Reserve System.Government investment and policy settings play a leading role in strategic growth of the National Reserve System in Australia, and provide a critical stimulus fornon-government investment. Unprecedented expansion of the National Reserve System followed an historic boost in Australian Government funding under Caring for Our Country 2008–2013. This expansion was highly economical for the Australian Government, costing an average of only $44.40 per hectare to buy and protect land forever. State governments have contributed about six times this amount toward the expansion of the National Reserve System, after including in-perpetuity protected area management costs. The growth of Indigenous Protected Areas by the Australian Government has cost ~$26 per hectare on average, including management costs capitalised in-perpetuity, while also delivering Indigenous social and economic outcomes. The aggregate annual investment by all Australian governments has been ~$72.6 million per year on protected area growth and ~$1.21 billion per year on recurrent management costs. For the first time in almost two decades, however, the Australian Government’s National Reserve System Program, comprising a specialist administrative unit and funding allocation, was terminated in late 2012. This program was fundamental in driving significant strategic growth in Australia’s protected area estate. It is highly unlikely that Australia can achieve its long-standing commitments to an ecologically representative National Reserve System, and prevent major biodiversity loss, without this dedicated funding pool. The Australian Government has budgeted ~$400 million per year over the next five years (2013-2018) under the National Landcare and related programs. This funding program should give high priority to delivery of national protected area commitments by providing a distinct National Reserve System funding allocation. Under the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD), Australia has committed to bringing at least 17 percent of terrestrial and at least 10 per cent of marine areas into ecologically representative, well-connected systems of protected areas by 2020 (Aichi Target 11).BIODIVERSITY CONSERVATIONAustralia also has an agreed intergovernmental Strategy for developing a comprehensive, adequate and representative National Reserve System on land andsea that, if implemented, would deliver on this CBD target. Due to dramatic recent growth, the National Reserve System covers 16.5 per cent of Australia’s land area, with highly protected areas, such as national parks, covering 8.3 per cent. The marine National Reserve System extends over one-third of Australian waters with highly protected areas such as marine national parks, no-take or green zones covering 13.5 per cent. Growth has been uneven however, and the National Reserve System is still far from meeting Aichi Target 11, which requires that it also be ecologically representative and well-connected. On land, 1,655 of 5,815 ecosystems and habitats for 138 of 1,613 threatened species remain unprotected. Nonetheless, 436 terrestrial ecosystems and 176 threatened terrestrial species attained minimum standards of protection due to growth of the National Reserve System on land between 2002 and 2012. The gap for ecosystem protection on land – the area needed to bring all ecosystems to the minimum standard of protection – closed by a very substantial 20 million hectares (from 77 down to 57 million hectares) between 2002 and 2012, not including threatened species protection gaps. Threatened species attaining a minimum standard for habitat protection increased from 27 per cent to 38 per cent over the decade 2002–2012. A low proportion of critically endangered species meeting the standard (29 per cent) and the high proportion with no protection at all (20 per cent) are cause for concern, but one which should be relatively easy to amend, as the distributions of these species tend to be small and localised. Protected area connectivity has increased modestly for terrestrial protected areas in terms of the median distance between neighbouring protected areas, but this progress has been undermined by increasing land use intensity in landscapes between protected areas.A comprehensive, adequate and representative marine reserve system, which meetsa standard of 15 per cent of each of 2,420 marine ecosystems and 30 per cent of thehabitats of each of 177 marine species of national environmental significance, wouldrequire expansion of marine national parks, no-take or green zones up to nearly 30per cent of state and Australian waters, not substantially different in overall extentfrom that of the current marine reserve system, but different in configuration.Protection of climate change refugia, connectivity and special places for biodiversityis still low and requires high priority attention. FINANCING TO FILL GAPS AND MEET COMMITMENTSIf the ‘comprehensiveness’ and ‘representativeness’ targets in the agreed terrestrial National Reserve System Strategy were met by 2020, Australia would be likely to have met the ‘ecologically representative’ requirement of Aichi Target 11. This would requireexpanding the terrestrial reserve system by at least 25 million hectares. Considering that the terrestrial ecosystem protection gap has closed by 20 million hectares over the past decade, this required expansion would be feasible with a major boost in investment and focus on long-standing priorities. A realistic mix of purchases, Indigenous Protected Areas and private land covenants would require an Australian Government National Reserve System investment of ~$170 million per year over the five years to 2020, representing ~42 per cent of the $400 million per year which the Australian Government has budgeted for landcare and conservation over the next five years. State, territory and local governments, private and Indigenous partners wouldlikewise need to boost financial commitments to both expand and maintain newprotected areas to meet the agreed National Reserve System strategic objectives.The total cost of Australia achieving a comprehensive, adequate and representativemarine reserve system that would satisfy Aichi Target 11 is an estimated $247 million.

An assessment of riparian restoration outcomes in two rural catchments in south-western Victoria: Focusing on tree and shrub species richness, structure and recruitment characteristics

Riparian ecosystems are among the most degraded systems in the landscape,and there has been substantial investment in their restoration. Consequently, monitoring restoration interventions offers opportunities to further develop the science of riparian restoration, particularly how to move from small-scale implementation to a broader landscape scale. Here, we report on a broad range of riparian revegetation projects in two regions of south-western Victoria, the Corangamite and Glenelg-Hopkins Catchment Management Areas. The objectives of restoration interventions in these regions have been stated quite broadly, for example, to reinstate terrestrial habitat and biodiversity, control erosion and improve water quality. This study reports on tree and shrub composition, structure and recruitment after restoration works compared with remnant vegetation found regionally. Within each catchment, a total of 57 sites from six subcatchments were identified, representing three age-classes: <4, 4–8 and >8–12 years after treatment, as well as untreated (control) sites. Treatments comprised fencing to exclude stock, spraying or slashing to reduce weed cover, followed by planting with tube stock. Across the six subcatchments, 12 reference (remnant) sites were used to provide a benchmark for species richness, structural and recruitment characteristics and to aid interpretation of the effects of the restoration intervention. Vegetation structure was well developed in the treated sites by 4–8 years after treatment. However, structural complexity was higher at remnant sites than at treated or untreated sites due to a higher richness of small shrubs. Tree and shrub recruitment occurred in all remnant sites and at 64% of sites treated >4 years ago. Most seedling recruitment at treatment sites was by Acacia spp. This assessment provides data on species richness, structure and recruitment characteristics following restoration interventions. Data from this study will contribute to longitudinal studies of vegetation processes in riparian landscapes of south-western Victoria.

Fire affects microhabitat selection, movement patterns, and body condition of an Australian rodent (Rattus fuscipes)

Resource selection by animals influences individual fitness, the abundance of local populations, and the distribution of species. Further, the degree to which individuals select particular resources can be altered by numerous factors including competition, predation, and both natural- and human-induced environmental change. Understanding the influence of such factors on the way animals use resources can guide species conservation and management in changing environments. In this study, we investigated the effects of a prescribed fire on small-scale (microhabitat) resource selection, abundance, body condition, and movement pathways of a native Australian rodent, the bush rat (Rattus fuscipes). Using a before-after, control-impact design, we gathered data from 60 individuals fitted with spool and line tracking devices. In unburnt forest, selection of resources by bush rats was positively related to rushes, logs and complex habitat, and negatively related to ferns and litter. Fire caused selection for spreading grass, rushes, and complex habitat to increase relative to an unburnt control location. At the burnt location after the fire, rats selected patches of unburnt vegetation, and no rats were caught at a trapping site where most of the understory had been burnt. The fire also reduced bush rat abundance and body condition and caused movement pathways to become more convoluted. After the fire, some individuals moved through burnt areas but the majority of movements occurred within unburnt patches. The effects of fire on bush rat resource selection, movement, body condition, and abundance were likely driven by several linked factors including limited access to shelter and food due to the loss of understory vegetation and heightened levels of perceived predation risk. Our findings suggest the influence of prescribed fire on small mammals will depend on the resulting mosaic of burnt and unburnt patches and how well this corresponds to the resource requirements of particular species.

Are incentive programs working? Landowner attitudes to ecological restoration of agricultural landscapes

Private property accounts for much of the planet's arable land, and most of this has been cleared for agricultural production. Agricultural areas retain only fragments of their original vegetation and this has been detrimental to many native plant and animal species. Habitat restoration and revegetation may be able to reconnect and enlarge existing remnant areas in agricultural landscapes and, thereby, enhance native plant and animal communities. However, conservation initiatives will be successful only if landowners actively participate in restoration actions. This study used four hundred postal questionnaires to assess the degree to which landowners in two regions of south-eastern Australia adopt restoration activities, their opinions regarding remnant and revegetated land and their management actions in these areas. One hundred and seventy nine completed questionnaires were received. Three quarters of respondents had undertaken restoration on their property or were planning to revegetate in the future. Landcare members were most likely to have previously revegetated and future revegetation intentions were best predicted by previous restoration activities and a primary income source that was off-farm. Landowners were more likely to manage restored and remnant areas if they perceived threats such as weeds, pest animals and fire risk would be detrimental to their property, than to enhance environmental outcomes. These results indicate that landowners are interested in restoring natural areas, but without greater assistance to restore ground layers and manage perceived threats posed by fire and invasive plants and animals, restoration actions will not have their desired biodiversity benefits.

Floristic and structural characteristics of a coastal heathland exhibiting symptoms of Phytophthora cinnamomi infestation in the eastern Otway Ranges, Victoria

The floristics and structure of heathland vegetation exhibiting symptoms of Phytophthora cinnamomi Rands infestation was assessed at two sites in heathlands at Anglesea, Victoria. There were significant effects in both floristics and structure. Thirteen heathland species were significantly less abundant in diseased areas and 23 species were more abundant. Diseased (infested) vegetation, when compared with non-diseased areas, had less cover of Xanthorrhoea australis and shrub species and a greater cover of sedges, grasses and open ground. Structural differences were observed between heights 0 and 0.6 m, with a decline in cover recorded in diseased vegetation. Non-metric multidimensional scaling ordination of the floristic data showed a clear separation of diseased and non-diseased vegetation and that changes in floristic composition post-infestation were similar at both sites. Although there was some evidence of regeneration of X. australis, the recovery capacity of other susceptible species at Anglesea is unknown. The long-term consequences of loss of species and structure in the eastern Otways mean that the vegetation is unlikely to return to former status, especially if the pathogen continues to reinfect.

On the edge: how well do fire mitigation strategies work on the urban fringe?

The reduction of loss of lives and assets during bushfire is one of the primary aims or lire management agencies. Traditional fire mitigation strategies include strategic fire hreaks, static water points, management of ignition sources, rapid detection and local response, air attack, and fuel reduction burning. There have been few quantitative studies that assess the success or these strategies. We need to promote 'new' strategies more focused on human hehaviour and community preparedness.
DeJcndable space provides our best strategy for reducing losses during major bushfires. The size or the defendable space depends on the type of house to be defended, who is defending it, and the spatial context of the property. In the urban fi'inge, remnant vegetation on private property often has
high conservation values, and application of traditional mitigation strategies, as well as the vegetation modification required to achieve defendable space, may have significant impacts on conservation and biodiversity values.

Non-uniform bird assemblages in urban environments : the influence of streetscape vegetation

The urban landscape encompasses a broad spectrum of variable environments ranging from remnant patches to highly modified streetscapes. Despite the expansion of urban environments, few studies have examined the influence of urbanization on faunal diversity, particularly in the Southern Hemisphere. In this study, four broad habitat types were recognized in the urban environment, representing a continuum of modification ranging from parks with remnant vegetation to streetscapes dominated by native vegetation and those dominated by exotic vegetation to recently developed streetscapes. Bird censuses were conducted at 36 sites throughout urban Melbourne, with nine sites surveyed in each habitat type. The four habitat types supported significantly different bird communities based on species richness, abundance and composition suggesting that bird assemblages of urban environments are non-uniform. Parks and native streetscapes generally supported fewer introduced species than exotic and recently developed streetscapes. Overall abundance and richness of species were lower in the exotic and recently developed streetscapes than in parks and native streetscapes. Significant differences were also observed in foraging guilds within the four habitat types, with parks having the most foraging guilds and recently developed streetscapes having the fewest. The transition from native to exotic streetscapes saw the progressive loss of insectivorous and nectarivorous species reflecting a reliance by these species on structurally diverse and/or native vegetation for both shelter and food resources. The implementation of effective strategies and incentives which encourage the planting of structurally diverse native vegetation in streetscapes and gardens should be paramount if avian biodiversity is to be retained and enhanced in urban environments. It is also critical to encourage the maintenance of the existing remnant vegetation in the urban environment.

Trends in children`s physical activity and weight status in high and low socio-economic status areas of Melbourne, Victoria, 1985-2001

Objective:
To examine trends in active transport to and from school, in school sport and physical education (PE), and in weight status among children from high and low socio-economic status (SES) areas in Melbourne, Victoria, between 1985 and 2001.

Methods:
Cross-sectional survey data and measured height and weight from 1985 (n=557) and 2001 (n=926) were compared for children aged between 9–13 years within high and low SES areas.

Results:
From 1985 to 2001, the frequency of walking to or from school declined (4.38±4.3 vs. 3.61 ± 3.8 trips/wk, p<0.001), cycling to or from school also declined (1.22±2.9 vs. 0.36±1.5 trips/wk, p<0.001), and the frequency of PE lessons declined (1.64±1.1 vs. 1.18±0.9 lessons/wk, p<0.001). However, the frequency of school sport increased (0.9±1.22 vs. 1.24±0.8 sessions/wk, p<0.001). In 1985, 11.7% of children were overweight or obese compared with 28.7% in 2001 (p<0.001). Apart from walking to school and school sport, there were greater relative declines in cycling to school and PE, and increases in overweight and obesity among children attending schools in low SES areas compared with those attending schools in high SES areas.

Conclusions:
Declines in active school transport and PE have occurred at the same time as increases in overweight and obesity among Australian children.

Implications:
Promoting active school transport and maintaining school sport and PE should be important public health priorities in Australia. Current inequities in school sport and PE and in prevalence of overweight and obesity by area-level SES also need to be addressed.

Dispersal and recruitment of juvenile Red-capped Robins, Petroica goodenovii

Data on the dispersal and recruitment of juvenile birds following fledging are largely unreported for Australian birds. In this study, we investigated the short-distance dispersal of a sample of colour-banded, juvenile Red-capped Robins, Petroica goodenovii, in Terrick Terrick National Park, Victoria, Australia. Of 67 colour-banded juvenile birds that successfully reached independence during the 2000–01 breeding season, eight were recruited into the study area or adjacent areas for the following breeding season. A ninth bird was resighted in Gunbower State Forest, 36 km from where it was banded. This is the furthest recorded dispersal movement of a Red-capped Robin. Of 59 colour-banded juvenile birds that reached independence during the 2001–02 season, four remained within the study area for the remainder of the breeding season, but these birds were not present in the study area during the following breeding season. Juvenile birds that successfully reached independence and dispersed were heavier as nestlings, when controlled for age and date, than birds that disappeared (assumed dead) before reaching independence. Estimates of Red-capped Robin abundances within Terrick Terrick National Park were greater than those of nearby eucalypt woodlands, suggesting that the White Cypress-pine, Callitris glaucophylla, woodlands within the park offer good-quality habitat for Red-capped Robins and may be saturated with breeding territories. Thus, juveniles may be forced to establish breeding territories far from their natal territories. These results are discussed in relation to avenues for further research on juvenile dispersal in Australian birds and their conservation implications.

Conservation and management of hydromyine rodents in Victoria, Australia

Of the 15 species of native rodents recorded from Victoria, Australia, six became extinct within 70 years of European settlement, and two of the remaining nine are classified as ‘threatened’ and four are classified as ‘near threatened’. Thus, only three species are considered to be adequately conserved. This represents one of the most dramatic mammalian species declines recorded in Australia. All the threatened species belong to the subfamily Hydromyinae, the Australian ‘old endemics’. Of the extinct species, four were recorded only from the semi-arid north-west of the state and two from dry woodlands in the central and southern regions. The two  endangered species are the smoky mouse, which has a disjunct distribution from near-coastal to sub-alpine habitats, and the New Holland mouse, which is the most geographically restricted species. Discovered in Victoria only in 1970, it has become extinct at several locations and is the subject of a major recovery program that includes captive breeding and reintroduction. Conservation protocols and practices for Victoria’s native rodents are implemented under state legislation, but lack of basic ecological information makes their conservation a difficult task.

Phytophthora cinnamomi and Australia’s biodiversity : impacts, predictions and progress towards control

Phytophthora cinnamomi continues to cause devastating disease in Australian native vegetation and consequently the disease is listed by the Federal Government as a process that is threatening Australia’s biodiversity. Although several advances have been made in our understanding of how this soil-borne pathogen interacts with plants and of how we may tackle it in natural systems, our ability to control the disease is limited. The pathogen occurs widely across Australia but the severity of its impact is most evident within ecological communities of the south-west and south-east of the country. A regional impact summary for all states and territories shows the pathogen to be the cause of serious disease in numerous species, a significant number of which are rare and threatened. Many genera of endemic taxa have a high proportion of susceptible species including the iconic genera Banksia, Epacris and Xanthorrhoea. Long-term studies in Victoria have shown limited but probably unsustainable recovery of susceptible vegetation, given current management practices. Management of the disease in conservation reserves is reliant on hygiene, the use of chemicals and restriction of access, and has had only limited effectiveness and not provided complete control. The deleterious impacts of the disease on faunal habitat are reasonably well documented and demonstrate loss of individual animal species and changes in population structure and species abundance. Few plant species are known to be resistant to P. cinnamomi; however, investigations over several years have discovered the mechanisms by which some plants are able to survive infection, including the activation of defence-related genes and signalling pathways, the reinforcement of cell walls and accumulation of toxic metabolites. Manipulation of resistance and resistance-related mechanisms may provide avenues for protection against disease in otherwise susceptible species. Despite the advances made in Phytophthora research in Australia during the past 40 years, there is still much to be done to give land managers the resources to combat this disease. Recent State and Federal initiatives offer the prospect of a growing and broader awareness of the disease and its associated impacts. However, awareness must be translated into action as time is running out for the large number of susceptible, and potentially susceptible, species within vulnerable Australian ecological communities.

Collapse of an avifauna : climate change appears to exacerbate habitat loss and degradation

Aim. We characterized changes in reporting rates and abundances of bird species over a period of severe rainfall deficiency and increasing average temperatures. We also measured flowering in eucalypts, which support large numbers of nectarivores characteristic of the region.

Location.  A 30,000-km2 region of northern Victoria, Australia, consisting of limited amounts of remnant native woodlands embedded in largely agricultural landscapes.

Methods. There were three sets of monitoring studies, pitched at regional  (survey programmes in 1995–97, 2004–05 and 2006–08), landscape (2002–03 and 2006–07) and site (1997–2008 continuously) scales. Bird survey techniques used a standard 2-ha, 20-min count method. We used Bayesian analyses of reporting rates to document statistically changes in the avifauna through time at each spatial scale.

Results. Bird populations in the largest remnants of native vegetation (up to 40,000 ha), some of which have been declared as national parks in the past decade, experienced similar declines to those in heavily cleared andscapes. All categories of birds (guilds based on foraging substrate, diet, nest site; relative mobility; geographical distributions) were affected similarly. We detected virtually no bird breeding in the latest survey periods. Eucalypt flowering has declined significantly over the past 12 years of drought.

Main conclusions. Declines in the largest woodland remnants commensurate with those in cleared landscapes suggest that reserve systems may not be relied upon to sustain species under climate change. We attribute population declines to low breeding success due to reduced food. Resilience of bird populations in this woodland system might be increased by active management to enhance habitat quality in existing vegetation and restoration of woodland in the more fertile parts of landscapes.

Ecological value of riparian zones to birds in forest landscapes

Riparian zones are a characteristic component of many landscapes throughout the world and increasingly are valued as key areas for biodiversity conservation. Their importance for bird communities has been well recognised in semi-arid environments and in modified landscapes where there is a marked contrast between riparian and adjacent non-riparian vegetation. The value of riparian zones in largely intact landscapes with continuous vegetation cover is less well understood. This research examined the importance of riparian habitats for avifauna conservation by investigating the ecological interactions contributing to the pattern of bird assemblages in riparian and adjacent non-riparian habitats. Specifically, the focus is on the bird assemblages of riparian zones and those of adjacent non-riparian vegetation types and the influence that associated differences in resource availabilities, habitat structure and conditions have on observed patterns. This study was conducted in the foothill forests of the Victorian Highlands, south-east Australia. Mixed-species eucalypt (genus Eucalyptus) forests dominate the vegetation of this region. Site selection was based on the occurrence of suitable riparian habitat interspersed within extensive, relatively undisturbed (i.e. no recent timber harvesting or fire events) forest mosaics. A series of 30 paired riparian and non-riparian sites were established among six stream systems in three forest areas (Bunyip State Park, Kinglake National Park and Marysville State Forest). Riparian sites were positioned alongside the stream and the non-riparian partner site was positioned on a facing slope at a distance of approximately 750 m. Bird surveys were carried out during 29 visits to each site between July 2001 and December 2002. Riparian sites were floristically distinct from non-riparian sites and had a more complex vegetation structure, including a mid-storey tree layer mostly absent from non-riparian sites, extensive fine litter and coarse woody debris, and dense ground-layer vegetation (e.g. sedges and ground ferns). The characteristic features of non-riparian habitats included a relatively dense canopy cover, a ground layer dominated by grasses and fine litter, and a high density of canopy-forming trees in the smaller size-classes. Riparian zones supported a significantly greater species richness, abundance and diversity of birds when compared to non-riparian habitats. The composition of bird assemblages differed significantly between riparian and non-riparian habitats, with riparian assemblages displaying a higher level of similarity among sites. The strongest contributors to observed dissimilarities between habitat types included species that occurred exclusively in either habitat type or species with large contrasts in abundance between habitat types. Much of the avifauna (36%) of the study area is composed of species that are common and widespread in south-east Australia (i.e. forest generalists). Riparian habitats were characterised by a suite of species more typical of wetter forest types in south-east Australia and many of these species had a restricted distribution in the forest mosaic. Some species (7%) occurred exclusively in riparian habitats (i.e. riparian selective species) while others (43%) were strongly linked to these habitats (i.e. riparian associated species). A smaller proportion of species occurred exclusively (2%) in non-riparian habitats (i.e. non-riparian selective species) or were strongly linked to these habitats (10%; i.e. non-riparian associated species). To examine the seasonal dynamics of assemblages, the variation through time in species richness, abundance and composition was compared between riparian and non-riparian sites. Riparian assemblages supported greater richness and abundance, and displayed less variation in these parameters, than non-riparian assemblages at all times. The species composition of riparian assemblages was distinct from non-riparian assemblages throughout the annual cycle. An influx of seasonal migrants elevated species richness and abundance in the forest landscape during spring and summer. The large-scale movement pattern (e.g. coastal migrant, inland migrant) adopted by migrating species was associated with their preference for riparian or non-riparian habitats in the landscape. Species which migrate north-south along the east coast of mainland Australia (i.e. coastal migrants) used riparian zones disproportionately; eight of eleven species were riparian associated species. Species which migrate north-south through inland Australia (i.e. inland migrants) were mostly associated with non-riparian habitats. The significant differences in the dynamics of community structure between riparian and non-riparian assemblages shows that there is a disproportionate use of riparian zones across the landscape and that they provide higher quality habitat for birds throughout the annual cycle. To examine the ecological mechanisms by which riparian assemblages are richer and support more individual birds, the number of ecological groups (foraging, nest-type and body mass groups) represented, and the species richness of these groups, was compared between riparian and non-riparian assemblages. The structurally complex vegetation and distinctive habitat features (e.g. aquatic environments, damp sheltered litter) provided in the riparian zone, resulted in the consistent addition of ecological groups to riparian assemblages (e.g. sheltered ground – invertebrates foraging group) compared with non-riparian assemblages. Greater species richness was accommodated in most foraging, nest-type and body mass groups in riparian than non-riparian assemblages. Riparian zones facilitated greater richness within ecological groups by providing conditions (i.e. more types of resources and greater abundance of resources) that promoted ecological segregation between ecologically similar species. For a set of commonly observed species, significant differences in their use of structural features, substrates and heights were registered between riparian and non-riparian habitats. The availability and dynamics of resources in riparian and non-riparian habitats were examined to determine if there is differential availability of particular resources, or in their temporal availability, throughout the annual cycle. Riparian zones supported more abundant and temporally reliable eucalypt flowering (i.e. nectar) than non-riparian habitats throughout the annual cycle. Riparian zones also supported an extensive loose bark resource (an important microhabitat for invertebrates) including more peeling bark and hanging bark throughout the year than at non-riparian sites. The productivity of eucalypts differed between habitat types, being higher in riparian zones at most times for all eucalypts combined, and for some species (e.g. Narrow-leaved Peppermint Eucalyptus radiata). Non-riparian habitats provided an abundant nectar resource (i.e. shrub flowering) at particular periods in the annual cycle. Birds showed clear relationships with the availability of specific food (i.e. nectar) and foraging resources (i.e. loose bark). The demonstration of a greater abundance of resources and higher primary productivity in riparian zones is consistent with the hypothesis that these linear strips that occupy only a small proportion of the landscape have a disproportionately high value for birds. Riparian zones in continuous eucalypt forest provide high quality habitats that contribute to the diversity of habitats and resources available to birds in the forest mosaic, with positive benefits for the landscape-level species pool. Despite riparian and non-riparian habitat supporting distinct assemblages of birds, strong linkages are maintained along the riparian-upslope gradient. Clearly, the maintenance of diverse and sustainable assemblages of birds in forest landscapes depends on complementary management of both riparian and non-riparian vegetation.