Increasing Iron and Zinc in Pre-Menopausal Women and Its Effects on Mood and Cognition: A Systematic Review.

Iron and zinc are essential minerals often present in similar food sources. In addition to the adverse effects of frank iron and zinc-deficient states, iron insufficiency has been associated with impairments in mood and cognition. This paper reviews current literature on iron or zinc supplementation and its impact on mood or cognition in pre-menopausal women. Searches included MEDLINE complete, Excerpta Medica Database (EMBASE), psychINFO, psychARTICLES, pubMED, ProQuest Health and Medical Complete Academic Search complete, Scopus and ScienceDirect. Ten randomized controlled trials and one non-randomized controlled trial were found to meet the inclusion criteria. Seven studies found improvements in aspects of mood and cognition after iron supplementation. Iron supplementation appeared to improve memory and intellectual ability in participants aged between 12 and 55 years in seven studies, regardless of whether the participant was initially iron insufficient or iron-deficient with anaemia. The review also found three controlled studies providing evidence to suggest a role for zinc supplementation as a treatment for depressive symptoms, as both an adjunct to traditional antidepressant therapy for individuals with a diagnosis of major depressive disorder and as a therapy in its own right in pre-menopausal women with zinc deficiency. Overall, the current literature indicates a positive effect of improving zinc status on enhanced cognitive and emotional functioning. However, further study involving well-designed randomized controlled trials is needed to identify the impact of improving iron and zinc status on mood and cognition.

The effects of ethinylestradiol and progestins ("the pill") on cognitive function in pre-menopausal women

Oral contraceptives (OCs), often referred to as "the pill", are the most commonly employed form of reversible contraception. OCs are comprised of combined synthetic estrogen and progestin, which work to suppress ovulation and subsequently protect against pregnancy. To date, almost 200 million women have taken various formulations of OC, making it one of the most widely consumed classes of medication in the world. While a substantial body of literature has been dedicated to understanding the physical effects of OCs, much less is known about the long term consequences of OC use on brain anatomy and the associated cognitive effects. Accumulating evidence suggests that sex hormones may significantly affect human cognition. This phenomenon has been commonly studied in older populations, such as in post-menopausal women, while research in healthy, pre-menopausal women remains limited. The current review focused on the effects of OCs on human cognition, with the majority of studies comparing pre-menopausal OC users to naturally cycling women. Human neuroimaging data and animal studies are also described herein. Taken together, the published findings on OC use and human cognition are varied. Of those that do report positive results, OC users appear to have improved verbal memory, associative learning and spatial attention. We recommend future research to employ blinding procedures and randomised designs. Further, more detailed information pertaining to the specific generation and phasic type of OCs, as well as menstrual cycle phase of the OC non-users should be considered to help unmask the potential impact of OC use on human cognition.

Dietary repletion with ω3 fatty acid or with COX inhibition reverses cognitive effects in F3 ω3 fatty-acid-deficient mice

Dietary deficiency of ω3 fatty acid during development leads to impaired cognitive function. However, the effects of multiple generations of ω3 fatty-acid deficiency on cognitive impairment remain unclear. In addition, we sought to test the hypothesis that the cognitive impairments of ω3 fatty-acid-deficient mice are mediated through the arachidonic acid-cyclooxygenase (COX) pathway. To address these issues, C57BL/6J mice were bred for 3 generations and fed diets either deficient (DEF) or sufficient (SUF) in ω3 fatty acids. At postnatal day 21, the F3 offspring remained on the dam's diet or were switched to the opposite diet, creating 4 groups. In addition, 2 groups that remained on the dam's diet were treated with a COX inhibitor. At 19 wk of age, spatial-recognition memory was tested on a Y-maze. Results showed that 16 wk of SUF diet reversed the cognitive impairment of F3 DEF mice. However, 16 wk of ω3 fatty-acid-deficient diet impaired the cognitive performance of the F3 SUF mice, which did not differ from that of the F3 DEF mice. These findings suggest that the cognitive deficits after multigenerational maintenance on ω3 fatty-acid-deficient diet are not any greater than are those after deficiency during a single generation. In addition, treatment with a COX inhibitor prevented spatial-recognition deficits in F3 DEF mice. Therefore, cognitive impairment due to dietary ω3 fatty-acid deficiency appears to be mediated by the arachidonic acid-COX pathway and can be prevented by 16 wk of dietary repletion with ω3 fatty acids or COX inhibition.

Effects of multivitamin, mineral and herbal supplement on cognition in younger adults and the contribution of B group vitamins

Cognitive benefits of multivitamins have been observed in the elderly, but fewer trials have investigated younger, healthy cohorts. This randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled study investigated the cognitive effects of 16-week multivitamin supplementation in adults aged 20-49 years.

Glucose administration and cognitive function: differential effects of age and effort during a dual task paradigm in younger and older adults

RATIONALE: Current research suggests that glucose facilitates performance on cognitive tasks which possess an episodic memory component and a relatively high level of cognitive demand. However, the extent to which this glucose facilitation effect is uniform across the lifespan is uncertain. METHODS: This study was a repeated measures, randomised, placebo-controlled, cross-over trial designed to assess the cognitive effects of glucose in younger and older adults under single and dual task conditions. Participants were 24 healthy younger (average age 20.6 years) and 24 healthy older adults (average age 72.5 years). They completed a recognition memory task after consuming drinks containing 25 g glucose and a placebo drink, both in the presence and absence of a secondary tracking task. RESULTS AND CONCLUSIONS: Glucose enhanced recognition memory response time and tracking precision during the secondary task, in older adults only. These findings do not support preferential targeting of hippocampal function by glucose, rather they suggest that glucose administration differentially increases the availability of attentional resources in older individuals.

Effects of a multivitamin, mineral and herbal supplement on cognition and blood biomarkers in older men: a randomised, placebo-controlled trial

OBJECTIVE: Nutritional and vitamin status may be related to cognitive function and decline in older adults. The aim of this study was to investigate the effects of nutritional supplementation on cognition in older men. METHOD: The current study was an 8-week, placebo-controlled, double-blind investigation into the effects of a multivitamin, mineral and herbal supplement (Swisse Men's Ultivite®, Swisse Vitamins Pty Ltd, Melbourne, Australia) on cognitive performance in older men. Participants were 51 male individuals aged between 50 and 74 years, with a sedentary lifestyle. Cognitive performance was assessed at baseline and post-treatment using a computerised battery of cognitive tasks, enabling the measurement of a range of attentional and memory processes. Blood measures of vitamin B(12) , folate and homocysteine were collected prior to and after supplementation. RESULTS: The results of this study revealed that contextual recognition memory performance was significantly improved following multivitamin supplementation (p < 0.05). Performance on other cognitive tasks did not change. Levels of vitamin B(12) and folate were significantly increased with a concomitant decrease in homocysteine, indicating that relatively short-term supplementation with a multivitamin can benefit these risk factors for cognitive decline. CONCLUSION: Findings from this study indicate that daily multivitamin supplementation may improve episodic memory in older men at risk of cognitive decline.

Memory improvements in elderly women following 16 weeks treatment with a combined multivitamin, mineral and herbal supplement: a randomized controlled trial.

RATIONALE: There is potential for multivitamin supplementation to improve cognition in the elderly. This randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial was conducted to investigate the effects of 16 weeks multivitamin supplementation (Swisse Women's 50+ Ultivite ®) on cognition in elderly women. METHODS: Participants in this study were 56 community dwelling, elderly women, with subjective complaints of memory loss. Cognition was assessed using a computerized battery of memory and attention tasks designed to be sensitive to age-related declines to fluid intelligence, and a measure of verbal recall. Biochemical measures of selected nutrients, homocysteine, markers of inflammation, oxidative stress, and blood safety parameters were also collected. All cognitive and haematological parameters were assessed at baseline and 16 weeks post-treatment. RESULTS: The multivitamin improved speed of response on a measure of spatial working memory, however benefits to other cognitive processes were not observed. Multivitamin supplementation decreased levels of homocysteine and increased levels of vitamin B(6) and B(12), with a trend for vitamin E to increase. There were no hepatotoxic effects of the multivitamin formula indicating this supplement was safe for everyday usage in the elderly. CONCLUSION: Sixteen weeks ssupplementation with a combined multivitamin, mineral and herbal formula may benefit working memory in elderly women at risk of cognitive decline.

Neurocognitive effects of multivitamin supplementation on the steady state visually evoked potential (SSVEP) measure of brain activity in elderly women

OBJECTIVE: Growing evidence suggests that dietary supplementation with selected micronutrients and nutraceuticals may have the potential to improve cognition in older adults. Fewer studies have investigated the effects of these substances on brain activity. METHODS: This study was a randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial, conducted to explore the effects of 16 weeks supplementation with a combined multivitamin, mineral and herbal formula on the steady state visually evoked potential (SSVEP) measure of brain electrical activity. Participants were elderly women aged between 64 and 79 years, with subjective memory complaints. Baseline and post-treatment SSVEP data was obtained for 22 participants in the multivitamin group and 19 in the placebo group. A spatial working memory delayed response task (DRT) was performed during the recording of the SSVEP. RESULTS: The results revealed that when compared to placebo, multivitamin supplementation delayed SSVEP latency during retrieval, interpreted as an increase in inhibitory neural processes. Behavioural performance on the DRT was not improved by the multivitamin, however improved performance accuracy was associated with increased midline central SSVEP latency. There were no multivitamin-related effects on SSVEP amplitude. CONCLUSION: These findings indicate that in the elderly, multivitamin supplementation may enhance neural efficiency during memory retrieval.

The effects of multivitamins on cognitive performance: a systematic review and meta-analysis

Complementary medicine use is becoming increasingly popular with multivitamins being the most commonly used vitamin supplement. Although adequate vitamin and nutrient concentrations are necessary for optimal health and cognitive functioning, there is no scientific consensus as to whether multivitamin use prevents cognitive decline or improves mental functioning. The aim of the present study was to determine if multivitamins can be used efficaciously to improve cognitive abilities. A systematic review of randomized controlled trials was performed. Meta-analysis was performed on those cognitive tests used across the largest number of studies. Multiple electronic databases were searched until July 2011 by two authors. Randomized, placebo-controlled trials were considered appropriate if they reported on the chronic effects (≥1 month) of oral multivitamin supplementation on any valid cognitive outcomes. Ten trials were included in review (n = 3,200). Meta-analysis indicated that multivitamins were effective in improving immediate free recall memory (SMD = 0.32; 95% CI: 0.09-0.56, p < 0.01) but not delayed free recall memory (SMD = -0.14; 95% CI: -0.43-0.14, p = 0.33) or verbal fluency (SMD = 0.06; 95% CI: -0.05-0.18, p = 0.26). There was no evidence of publication bias or heterogeneity. Other cognitive abilities sensitive to AD pathology, such as executive and visuospatial functions, were found to be under researched. In conclusion, multivitamins were found to enhance immediate free recall memory but no other cognitive domains.

Bed rest and cognition: effects on executive functioning and reaction time

INTRODUCTION: Executive functions are high-order aspects of cognition heavily dependent upon the prefrontal cortex. Both prefrontal cortex activity and executive function task performance are enhanced by participation in aerobic physical activity, suggesting that a lack of such activity during the bed rest model of prolonged weightlessness might induce executive function deficits. METHODS: Twenty-four healthy males (ages 21-45 yr) undertook 60 d of head-down bed rest (-6 degrees) for the 2nd Berlin Bed Rest Study (BBR2-2). Three executive function tasks (Iowa Gambling Task, working memory, and flanker) and a reaction time task were administered before, during, and after bed rest. RESULTS: Iowa Gambling Task scores were significantly worse during bed rest (1.7 +/- 6.9) than in other sessions (24.3 +/- 7.8). Effects on working memory and flanker task performance were less obvious, requiring practice effects to be considered. Reaction time was significantly slower after bed rest (569 +/- 42 ms) than in earlier tests (529 +/- 45 ms). There was also significantly less intrasubject variability in reaction time after bed rest, consistent with more efficient executive functioning at this stage. DISCUSSION: Our results provide some evidence for a detrimental effect of bed rest on executive functioning. Whether this stems from a lack of aerobic physical activity and/or changes in the prefrontal cortex remains to be determined. Cognitive effects of bed rest could have implications for the planned human exploration of Mars, and for medical and lifestyle conditions with inadequate levels of aerobic physical activity.

Autobiographical memory and depression: identity-continuity and problem-solving functions indirectly predict symptoms over time through psychological well-being

The aim of this study was to assess the longitudinal associations between adaptive autobiographical memory functions and depressive symptoms. Consistent with the proposed mechanisms of change underpinning cognitive-reminiscence therapy (CRT), it was hypothesised that more frequent adaptive reminiscence would lead to increases in psychological resources over time and indirectly affect depressive symptoms through this pathway. A sample of 171 young adults (mean age=25.9years, SD=3.5) completed measures of how frequently they utilised autobiographical memory for identity-continuity and problem-solving purposes, depressive symptoms and personal resources (self-esteem, self-efficacy, meaning in life and optimism) at two time-points. The results of structural equation modelling supported the model of indirect influence between reminiscence functions and depression through these psychological resources. These findings clarify the effects of adaptive autobiographical memory on depressive symptoms in young adults and indicate potential benefits of interventions such as CRT.

The non-advertising effects of screen-based sedentary activities on acute eating behaviours in children, adolescents, and young adults. A systematic review.

Sedentary screen time may be an important determinant of childhood obesity. A number of potential mechanisms to explain the link between screen time and increased bodyweight have been proposed; however, the relationship appears to be best explained by the effects on dietary intake, which is attributed to either food advertising or effects independent of food advertising. Technological advances have allowed for greater accessibility and exposure to advertisement-free screen-based media. This review was conducted to systematically synthesise the evidence from laboratory based studies which have investigated the non-advertising effects of screen time (TV viewing, sedentary video games, and computer use) on dietary intake in children, adolescents, and young adults. MEDLINE, PubMed, PsychInfo, CINAHL, and Embase were searched from inception through 5 July 2013. Ten trials met the inclusion criteria and were included in the review. Risk of study bias was judged to range from low to high. Screen time in the absence of food advertising was consistently found to be associated with increased dietary intake compared with non-screen behaviours. Suggested explanations for this relationship included: distraction, interruption of physiologic food regulation, screen time as a conditioned cue to eat, disruption of memory formation, and the effects of the stress-induced reward system. Due to the limited number of high-quality studies available for this review, our findings are preliminary. More work is required to better establish the link between dietary intake and advertisement-free screen time and assess whether differences exist between the different screen-based activities.

Active video games - An opportunity for enhanced learning and positive health effects?

Active video games are an emerging genre of electronic games that provide engaging exercise experiences by combining physical exertion with interactive game play. As such they have attracted increased interest from health promotion professionals to reduce sedentary behavior, increase physical activity, and improve health outcomes such as body composition. However their potential for enhancing the educational experience has not been extensively explored. This paper provides a brief overview of active video game research to date and outlines opportunities for future research. Specifically, we highlight the need to develop a conceptual framework to better understand the determinants, mediators, moderators, and consequences of active video gaming and integrate learning and health outcomes. Wepropose that active video games can be a key part of a wider “digital” supportive environment where education and health researchers and professionals work with, rather than against, video game technologies to promote learning and health.

Memory, image, matter: Trauma and acts of un-forgetting

How might we conceive of the role of memory as a non-representational mode of commemoration that reconstitutes and transforms lived experience? In this paper I will draw on aspects on Indigenous epistemology and apply conceptions of memory outlines in works of Edward Casey, Henri Bergson and others to consider how social and psychological effects of trauma are manifested through generations. An understanding of the relationship between images, memory and matter and of memory as a primarily eidetic and material process may also help to suggest how some people may be able to avoid or overcome trauma. As image production, art-making generates images that like memory, perform acts of "unforgetting" through which the past is returned as a presence that is materially apprehended. This process can both sustain and transform individual and collective histories. Central to this idea is the notion that, the structure of mind and of memory are co-extensive with the external world an that the articulation of consciousness is crucially dependent on space and place.

Prospective memory while driving : comparison of time- and event-based intentions

Prospective memories can divert attentional resources from ongoing activities. However, it is unclear whether these effects and the theoretical accounts that seek to explain them will generalise to a complex real-world task such as driving. Twenty-four participants drove two simulated routes while maintaining a fixed headway with a lead vehicle. Drivers were given either event-based (e.g. arriving at a filling station) or time-based errands (e.g. on-board clock shows 3:30). In contrast to the predominant view in the literature which suggests time-based tasks are more demanding, drivers given event-based errands showed greater difficulty in mirroring lead vehicle speed changes compared to the time-based group. Results suggest that common everyday secondary tasks, such as scouting the roadside for a bank, may have a detrimental impact on driving performance. The additional finding that this cost was only evident with the event-based task highlights a potential area of both theoretical and practical interest. Practitioner Summary: Drivers were given either time- or event-based errands whilst engaged in a simulated drive. We examined the effect of errands on an ongoing vehicle follow task. In contrast to previous non-driving studies, event-based errands are more disruptive. Common everyday errands may have a detrimental impact on driving performance.