Influence of task properties and subjectivity on consistency of triage: a simulation study

Aim. This paper reports a study to determine nurses' levels of agreement using a standard 5-point triage scale and to explore the influence of task properties and subjectivity on decision-making consistency.

Background. Triage scales are used to define time-to-treatment in hospital emergency departments. Studies of the inter-rater reliability of these scales using paper-based simulation methods report varying levels of consistency. Understanding how various components of the decision task and individual perceptions of the case influence agreement is critical to the development of strategies to improve consistency of triage.

Method. Simulations were constructed from naturalistic observation, cue types and frequencies were classified. Data collection was conducted in 2002, and the final response rate was 41·3%. Participants were asked to allocate an urgency code for 12 scenarios using the Australasian Triage Scale, and provide estimates of case complexity, levels of certainty and available information. Data were analysed descriptively, agreement between raters was calculated using kappa. The influence of task properties and participants' subjective estimates of case complexity, levels of certainty and available information on agreement were explored using a general linear model.

Findings. Agreement among raters varied from moderate to poor (κ = 0·18–0·64). Participants' subjective estimates of levels of available information were found to influence consistency of triage by statistically significant amounts (F 5·68; ≤0·01).

Conclusions. Strategies employed to optimize consistency of triage should focus on improving the quality of the simulations that are used. In particular, attention should be paid to the development of interactive simulations that will accommodate individual differences in information-seeking behaviour.

A complex relationship among chemical concentration, detection threshold and suprathreshold intensity of bitter compounds

Detection thresholds and psychophysical curves were established for caffeine, quinine-HCl (QHCl), and propylthiouracil (PROP) in a sample of 33 subjects (28 female mean age 24 ± 4). The mean detection threshold (±standard error) for caffeine, QHCl, and PROP was 1.2 ± 0.12, 0.0083 ± 0.001, and 0.088 ± 0.07 mM, respectively. Pearson product–moment analysis revealed no significant correlations between detection thresholds of the compounds. Psychophysical curves were constructed for each bitter compound over 6 concentrations. There were significant correlations between incremental points of the individual psychophysical curves for QHCl and PROP. Regarding caffeine, there was a specific concentration (6 mM) below and above which the incremental steps in bitterness were correlated. Between compounds, analysis of psychophysical curves revealed no correlations with PROP, but there were significant correlations between the bitterness of caffeine and QHCl at higher concentrations on the psychophysical curve (P < 0.05). Correlation analysis of detection threshold and suprathreshold intensity within a compound revealed a significant correlation between PROP threshold and suprathreshold intensity (r = 0.46–0.4, P < 0.05), a significant negative correlation for QHCl (r = –0.33 to –0.4, P < 0.05), and no correlation for caffeine. The results suggest a complex relationship between chemical concentration, detection threshold, and suprathreshold intensity.

Should personality traits be considered when refining substance misuse treatment programs?

The interplay between stable personality characteristics and environmental factors is emphasised in most contemporary approaches to individual differences. This interaction appears to be important in understanding the development of substance use and misuse. Impulsivity related personality traits such as sensation-seeking, novelty seeking, reward-sensitivity and behavioural disinhibition, are strongly linked to adolescent and adult substance use and misuse. The role of anxiety-related traits, in the development of substance misuse is less clear. Nonetheless, anxiety disorders are very common amongst adult substance misusers and almost certainly play a critical role in the maintenance of a substance use disorder and influence treatment effectiveness. The data suggest that personality influences treatment outcomes and yet these individual differences are generally not addressed in treatment. We argue in this review that interventions which are matched to these relevant personality traits may improve treatment outcomes for substance misusers. [Staiger PK, Kambouropoulos N, Dawe S. Should personality traits be considered when refining substance misuse treatment programs?

The right tool for the job? Use of the multiple intelligences and Bloom's taxonomy grid

This article explores the tacit understanding of teachers in the field of gifted educational practices after their participation in gifted education professional development. The data for this article are drawn from a single-case qualitative study where semi-structured interviews were held with teachers, administrators and support staff in a metropolitan Victorian primary school. The findings lead to two main arguments: first, that some teachers preserved their deeply entrenched beliefs and assumptions about the gifted, the talented and intelligence[s]; and second, that teachers, without critical examination, eagerly adopted and adapted Gardner's Multiple Intelligences theory, overlaid with Bloom's Revised Taxonomy of Thinking as a means for addressing individual differences in the classroom. The article argues that teachers welcomed the Gardner/Bloom matrix for its 'tick-the-box' simplicity, with little insight into the theoretical models. Whilst the matrix had an immediate value in the mixed ability classrooms, in the long term it did not support the learning needs of gifted students. [Author abstract]

Identifying the underlying dimensions of teachers' emotional intelligence

Within the area of educational research that has its focus on individual differences, the concept of emotional intelligence and its study in relation to the professional lives of teachers has raised considerable interest over the past decade. This article reports on data from a new measure of emotional intelligence specifically related to situations in the teaching environment. The four underlying dimensions that are identified in this study appear to be a more relevant way of characterising emotional intelligence for those in the teaching profession than other conceptualisations of emotional intelligence. The article concludes with an examination of the contention that emotional intelligence is strongly connected to effective teaching practice

Sensory characterization of the irritant properties of oleocanthal, a natural anti-inflammatory agent in extra virgin olive oils

Oleocanthal is an olive oil phenolic possessing anti-inflammatory activity. Anecdotal evidence suggests that oleocanthal elicits a stinging sensation felt only at the back of the throat (oropharynx). Due to this compound possessing potentially health-benefiting properties, investigation into the sensory aspects of oleocanthal is warranted to aid in future research. The important link between the perceptual aspects of oleocanthal and health benefits is the notion that variation in sensitivity to oleocanthal irritation may relate to potential differences in sensitivity to the pharmacologic action of this compound. The current study assessed the unique irritant attributes of oleocanthal including its location of irritation, temporal profile, and individual differences in the perceived irritation. We show that the irritation elicited by oleocanthal was localized to the oropharynx (P < 0.001) with little or no irritation in the anterior oral cavity. Peak irritation was perceived 15 s postexposure and lasted over 180 s. Oleocanthal irritation was more variable among individuals compared with the irritation elicited by CO₂ and the sweetness of sucrose. There was no correlation between intensity ratings of oleocanthal and CO₂ and oleocanthal and sucrose (r = –0.15, n = 50, P = 0.92 and r = 0.17, n = 84, P = 0.12, respectively), suggesting that independent mechanisms underlie the irritation of CO₂ and oleocanthal. The unusual spatial localization and independence of acid (CO₂) sensations suggest that distinct nociceptors for oleocanthal are located in the oropharyngeal region of the oral cavity.

Procedural justice and affect intensity : understanding reactions to regulatory authorities

Why is it that some people respond in a more negative way to procedural injustice than do others, and why is it that some people go on to defy authority while others in the same situation do not? Personality theorists suggest that the psychological effect of a situation depends on how a person interprets the situation and that such differences in interpretation can vary as a function of individual difference factors. For example, affect intensity—one’s predisposition to react more or less emotionally to an event—is one such individual difference factor that has been shown to influence people’s reactions to events. Cross-sectional survey data collected from (a) 652 tax offenders who have been through a serious law enforcement experience (Study 1), and (b) 672 citizens with recent personal contact with a police officer (Study 2), showed that individual differences in ‘affect intensity’ moderate the effect of procedural justice on both affective reactions and compliance behavior. Specifically, perceptions of procedural justice had a greater effect in reducing anger and reports of non-compliance among those lower in affect intensity than those higher in affect intensity. Both methodological and theoretical explanations are offered to explain the results, including the suggestion that emotions of shame may play a role in the observed interaction.

Color signals in the Black Grouse (Tetrao tetrix) : signal properties and their condition dependency

Recent progress in techniques of quantifying between‐individual differences of color‐based ornaments has revealed undiscovered possibilities for research in sexual selection. We present how the color spectra data can be comprehensively used for studying the importance of sexual ornaments in the black grouse and how these ornaments are related to a male condition. For this, we used both correlative field and experimental data. Field data indicated that older males had more chromatic coloration than yearlings. Blue chroma of males was correlated with male mating success. We experimentally manipulated yearling birds with testosterone implants and found that testosterone‐implanted males had impaired expression of several sexual ornaments: 10 months after the implantation, both structural‐based blue and carotenoid‐based red eye comb coloration were diminished, as well as lyre (tail) length. However, the manipulation did not affect vital traits under natural selection (wing length or body mass). Our data indicate that structural color is an important trait in sexual selection in this lekking species. Importantly, the data also indicate that male sexual ornaments are more susceptible to environmental conditions than the other male traits, thus showing their heightened condition dependency compared with the other traits mediating the honesty of signaling.

Emotional habituation to filmed violence employing the startle probe response

This thesis reports on research examining the habituation of emotional variables to filmed violence. The following subjective emotional variables were assessed: positive feelings, anxiety, disgust, entertainment and anger. In addition, an objective measure of emotional response was recorded physiologically, using the startle eyeblink response. The mediating influence of personality, individual differences and contextual features on an individuals’ perception of and reaction to filmed violence were also explored. Study one was exploratory in nature served to identify and select the film stimuli to be employed in the subsequent studies. The primary aim of the study was to allow for the identification of violent stimuli considered to be most socially and culturally relevant. The present research builds on existing scientific literature which has began to appreciate that differences in the context of a portrayal holds important implications for its impact on viewers. Thus, a secondary and more specific desire of study one was to obtain an evaluation of the contextual features of the violent film segments. A sample of 30 participants viewed and rated the film stimuli on the variables of realism, fantasy and violence. From this exploratory study four violent film stimuli were subsequently employed. Study 2 used the eyeblink startle response proposed by Vrana, Spence and Lang (1988) to explore the habituation of emotional variables to a realistic depiction of filmed violence. Emotional response was assessed both objectively, using the eyeblink startle response and subjectively through individuals self-reports. In addition the study investigated the significance of individual differences as mediators of emotional response. Questionnaire and physiological data were obtained from 30 participants. Overall, repeated exposure to filmed violence resulted in a decline in both objective and subjective emotional response. Differences were identified in the manner in which men and women responded to the film. Women reacted initially and over time with more intense physiological and psychological reactions to the violent film than males. Specifically, men displayed more curiosity and reported greater entertainment and positive feelings in response to the film, whilst women found the violence more disgusting and reported higher levels of anger and anxiety. It was found that the eyeblink startle magnitude paralleled the subjective emotional processing of the violent film, thus providing further confirmatory evidence of its validity in the investigation of emotional reactions to a stimulus. Personality factors were found to mediate emotional response to filmed violence, with neuroticism most powerfully implicated. High levels of neuroticism were found to be associated with greater anger and anxiety and less positive feelings whilst viewing violent film. A high score on extraversion was correlated with higher levels of anger and lower levels of curiosity and entertainment. Whilst the aims of study 3 were identical to that of study 2, a variation in the contextual feature of the violent film stimuli under investigation was the distinguishing and pertinent feature. Study 2 provided data on the habituation of emotional response to a realistic depiction of filmed violence. Study 3 was concerned with emotional response over repeated exposure to a fantasized violent depiction. Therefore, allowing for a comparison regarding the effects of context on emotional response. The results of study 3, with respect to habituation of emotional response, personality and individual differences, were similar to that obtained in study 2. A comparison of the two studies, however, revealed that individuals responded significantly different to the contextual features of the violent portrayal. Compared to the fantasised portrayal the realistic film stimulus was reported to be more digusting, anxiety provoking and less entertaining. In addition, and not surprisingly respondents reported that the realistic portrayal resulted in the production of more anger and less positive feelings.

Process analysis of the solution strategies used for problems contained in the Minnesota Paper Board Form Board test

This thesis reviews progress toward an understanding of the processes involved in the solution of spatial problems. Previous work employing factor analysis and information processing analysis is reviewed and the emphasis on variations in speed and accuracy as the major contributers to individual differences is noted. It is argued that the strategy used by individuals is a preferable explanatory concept for identifying the cognitive substratum necessary for problem solving. Using the protocols obtained from subjects solving The Minnesota Paper Form Board (Revised), a test commonly regarded as measuring skill in spatial visualization, a number of different strategies are isolated. Assumptions as to the task variants which undergird these strategies are made and tested experimentally. The results suggest that task variants such as the size of the stimulus and the shape of the pieces interact with subject variables to produce the operating strategy. Skill in problem solving is revealed in the ability to structure the array, to hold a structured image and to reduce the number of answers requiring intensive processing. The interaction between task and subject variables results in appropriate or inappropriate strategies which in turn affect speed and accuracy. Results suggest that strategy formation and usage are the keys to explaining individual differences and an heuristic model is presented to explain the performance of individual subjects on the problems involved in the Minnesota Paper Form Board. The model can be used to predict performance on other tests; and as an aid to teaching subjects experiencing difficulties. The model presented incorporates strategy variation and is consequently mores complex than previously suggested models. It is argued that such complexity is necessary to explain the nature of a subject's performance and is also necessary to perform diagnostic evaluation. Certain structural -features of the Minnesota Paper Form Board are questioned and suggestions for improvement included. The essential explanatory function of the strategy in use makes the prevalent group administration approach suspect in the prediction of future performance in spatial or vocational activity.

Towards an integration of theories of achievement motivation

This thesis investigated children's school achievement in terms of an integration of three theories of achievement motivation. The three theoretical outlooks were expectancy-value theory (EVT), implicit theories of intelligence (ITI), and flow theory (FT). The first of two studies was an exploratory investigation of the effectiveness of each theory independently and combined to predict children's achievement in four school subjects. The subject areas were maths, reading, instrumental music and sport. Participants were 84 children (40 females and 44 males) aged 9 to 10 years, one of each child's parents, and school teachers of each child in the four subject areas. All data were collected through questionnaires based on the three models. The results indicated that EVT and FT but not ITI accounted for a significant amount of the variance in children's achievement, including effects for subject area and gender. A second confirmatory study tested EVT, FT and an integrated model for the prediction of achievement in maths, reading and instrumental music. The participants were a further 141 children (74 females and 67 males) aged 10 to 11 years, and a parent and teachers of each child. Data collection using questionnaires occurred early in the school year (Timel) and approximately five months later (Time2). For EVT, children and parents’ competence beliefs were significant predictors of children's achievement in each subject area. Females tended to believe themselves more competent at reading and instrumental music and also valued these subjects more highly than boys. Modeling results for flow theory indicated that children's emotional responses to classes (happiness and confusion) were significant predictors of achievement, the type of emotion varying between subject areas and time periods. Females generally had a more positive emotional reaction to reading and instrumental music classes than males did. The integrated model results indicated significant relationships between EVT and flow theories for each subject area, with EVT explaining most achievement variance in the integrated model. Children's and parents’ competence beliefs were the main predictors of achievement at Timel and 2, Subject area and gender differences were found which provide direction for future research. Anecdotal reports of parents and teachers often attest to individual differences in children's involvement in various school domains. Even among children of apparently similar intelligence, it is not uncommon to find one who likes nothing better than to work on a mathematics problem while another much prefers to read a novel or play a musical instrument Some children appear to achieve good results for most of the activities in which they are engaged while others achieve in a less consistent manner, sometimes particularly excelling in one activity. Some children respond to failure experiences with a determination to improve their performance in the future while others react with resignation and acceptance of their low ability. Some children appear to become totally absorbed in the activity of playing sport while others cannot wait for the game to end. The primary research objective guiding the current thesis is how children's thoughts and feelings about school subjects differ and are related to their school achievement. A perusal of the achievement motivation literature indicates several possible models and concepts that can be applied to explain individual differences in children's school achievement. Concepts such as academic self-concept, multiple intelligences, intrinsic and extrinsic motivation, self-beliefs, competence beliefs, subjective task values, mastery and performance goals, ‘Flow’ experiences and social motivation are just some of the constructs used to explain children's achievement motivation, both within and between various activity domains. These constructs are proposed by researchers from different theoretical perspectives to achievement motivation. Although there is much literature relevant to each perspective, there is little research indicating how the various perspectives may relate to each other. The current thesis will begin by reviewing three currently popular theoretical orientations cited in achievement motivation research: subjective beliefs and values; implicit theories of intelligence, and flow experience and family complexity. Following this review, a framework will be proposed for testing the determinants of children's school achievement, both within each of the three theoretical perspectives and also in combination.

Reduction of vividness and associated craving in personalized food imagery

This study aimed to extend recent experimental work on the efficacy of visuo-spatial working memory-based techniques for reducing food cravings by adopting a more naturalistic methodology. Fifty undergraduate women formed images of their favorite foods while performing a visuo-spatial task across six successive trials. Vividness and craving intensity were rated for each food image. Concurrent visuo-spatial processing reduced the vividness of, and craving reactivity to, personally relevant food images. Forehead tracking, a novel self-administered task, proved to be as effective in reducing vividness and craving ratings as the established visuo-spatial working memory laboratory tasks of eye movements, dynamic visual noise, and spatial tapping, and thus presents a simple, accessible technique potentially applicable in the home environment. All four tasks maintained their reducing effect over multiple trials. Individual differences in imaging ability and habitual food craving did not impact upon their effectiveness, indicating that visuo-spatial tasks can be successfully used to reduce food cravings across a range of people.

n-3 Polyunsaturated fatty acid-rich vegetable oils and blends

α-Linseed, camelina. perilla, and echium oils are n-3 C₁₈ polyunsaturated fatty acid (PUFA)-rich vegetable oil sources viewed as favorable replacements to fish oil in aquaculture feed (aquafeed) production in consideration of their high (α-linolenic acid (ALA, 18:3n-3) and/or stearidonic acid (SDA, 18:4n-3) contents and potential for subsequent bioconversion to n-3 long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids (LC-PUFA) in farmed aquatic species. While the total production of these oils is currently low in comparison with that of other terrestrial oil sources, their distinct fatty acid composition and high n-3 to n-6 ratio deliver a unique substitute to fish oil in aquafeeds, presently unparalleled in other alternative terrestrial oil sources. The dietary inclusion of these oil sources has therefore attracted significant research attention, resulting in a multitude of investigations across a broad range of aquatic species (finfish and crustaceans). Generally, providing that the essential fatty acid (EFA) requirements of the species under investigation were met and an adequate level of fish meal was present in the diet, it was found possible to replace 100% and 60-70% of the dietary fish oil component for freshwater and marine species, respectively, with minimal impact on growth performance indices. However, the substitution of fish oil with n-3-rich vegetable oils and/or vegetable oil blends resulted in substantially reduced concentrations of health-promoting eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA, 20:5n-3) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA, 22:6n-3) in the edible portion of the farmed species. This chapter provides an overview of the use of n-3 PUFA-rich vegetable oils and/or vegetable oil blends for use in aquafeeds. In particular, key aspects of oil production, processing, and refinement will be presented, and individual differences pertaining to the physical, chemical, and nutritional characteristics of the oil types will be highlighted. Following on from this, a summary of the key findings relevant to n-3 PUFA-rich vegetable oil inclusion in aquafeeds will be discussed, with particular emphasis placed on growth performance and nutritional modification.

The Pathways model of assault : a qualitative analysis of the assault offender and offence

Research on offending behavior rehabilitation suggests that offenders would gain the maximum benefit from programs that reflect the individual needs of different types of offender. Multivariate theories of offending behavior are thus required to inform individualized rehabilitation. The aim of the current study was to construct a multivariate model for the prolific offense of assault. Qualitative methodology was used to construct a descriptive model of assault for 25 adult assault offenders. The model incorporated the development of violent behavior, types of anger, violence motivation, and the assault offense. The model consisted of 14 categories, 10 of which allowed for individual differences in behavior. A total of 35 participant transcripts were then coded through the model where the individual differences occurred. Five main offense types were found. The characteristics of the types of assault offense gave indications for how rehabilitation may be targeted for each group.

Early life stress and child temperament style as predictors of childhood anxiety and depressive symptoms : findings from the longitudinal study of Australian children

Objective. The purpose of this study was to determine whether the relationship between stressful infant environments and later childhood anxiety and depressive symptoms varies as a function of individual differences in temperament style.

Methods. Data was drawn fromthe Longitudinal Study of Australian Children (LSAC). This study examined 3425 infants assessed at three time points, at 1-year, at 2/3 years and at 4/5 years. Temperament was measured using a 12-item version of Toddler Temperament Scale (TTS) and was scored for reactive, avoidant, and impulsive dimensions. Logistic regression was used to model direct relationships and additive interactions between early life stress, temperament, and emotional symptoms at 4 years of age. Analyses were adjusted for socioeconomic status, parental education, andmarital status.

Results. Stressful family environments experienced in the infant’s first year of life (high versus low) and high reactive, avoidant, and impulsive temperament styles directly and independently predicted anxiety and depressive problems in children at 4 years of age. There was no evidence of interaction between temperament and family stress exposure.

Conclusions. Both infant temperament and stress exposures are independent and notable predictors of later anxiety and depressive problems in childhood. The risk relationship between stress exposure in infancy and childhood emotion problems did not vary as a function of infant temperament. Implications for preventive intervention and future research directions are discussed.