Gender differences in the perceptions of wildlife management objectives and priorities in Australasia

It is now well established that men and women often differ significantly in their attitudes and responses to workplace situations, challenges and policies. The aim of this study was to examine the effect of gender on perceptions and priorities held by Australasian wildlife managers. Data were collected via a questionnaire distributed during December 2002 – February 2003 to members of the Australasian Wildlife Management Society (AWMS) and registrants of the 2002 AWMS annual conference. The results show that there are now significantly more female AWMS members than there were in the early 1990s, a possible indication of a change in the wider wildlife management profession in Australasia. Consistent with previous research, male respondents held different views from female respondents about wildlife and wildlife management. In particular, male respondents were significantly more likely to express the ‘management/consumptive use of wildlife’ perspective than female respondents. Interestingly, this gap was observed only in the 18–30-year age category. The paper examines what these differences might mean for the future of wildlife management in Australasia.

eBusiness and information systems : academic programs in Australia and New Zealand in the e-Age

Universities are increasingly turning to ‘fashionable’ education programs to attract bright, high-quality students to both under-graduate and post-graduate degree programs. Traditional offerings in technology areas, such as Information Systems and Information Technology are being augmented by newer, more marketable degrees in areas such as eCommerce/eBusiness. This paper analyses the eCommerce/eBusiness and Information Systems (IS) / Information Technology (IT) academic programs in Australian and New Zealand universities on the basis of Kotler and Fox's service offering model of educational institutions; and considers what differences exist between these two apparently similar areas of academic endeavour. Finally we look at the trends of academic program delivery in the e-age and question whether universities need to take a more consumer-product approach to the issue of attracting appropriate students.

Technological disadvantage of the digital age

Debates continue about the relative benefits, costs and risks of the diffusion of computer-based technologies throughout society and schooling. One area that has received considerable attention is gender equity. Early work on gender and computers focused on differences between male and female access and use (e.g. Huff, Fleming & Cooper, 1992; Kirkman, 1993; Morritt, 1997; Nelson & Cooper, 1997; Sofia, 1993), with concerns focused on the potential for girls to be disadvantaged. In some respects, it is arguable that problems of gender equity in schools with respect to computers have been overcome. For example, in a small study I conducted in two New Zealand senior primary classrooms in 2003, I found that both boys and girls were motivated to use computers and appeared to have equal opportunities to access computers in the classroom. The students in my study expressed a belief in the importance of using computers, and this belief can also be discerned from educational policy and media coverage.
In this paper I argue that, although gender by itself no longer appears to be a source of disadvantage in terms of access to and use of computers in schools, many questions about technology, schooling and power relations still remain unanswered. I present two alternative viewpoints on the new digital age. First, I explore Melanie Stewart Millar’s (1998) analysis of digital discourse as one which reproduces the power of white, middle-class, educated, well-paid males, and excludes anything else it considers ‘Other’. Second, I review arguments that the digital age has provided sites for the transcendence of traditional hierarchies and inequalities (e.g. Spender, 1995). I conclude that, despite the discrepancies between these two viewpoints, both concur that technological disadvantage will exacerbate any existing inequality that might result from intersections of identity categories, such as, gender, ethnicity, age, and socio-economic status.

Online versus postal data collection : a re-examination of the response differences using demographically matched data

Past research has identified differences between online and mail collected responses to the same survey, but differences in the demographics of respondents had also been noted making the cause of the variation unclear. In the research reported here, responses to the same questionnaire, delivered via mail and internet surveys, were demographically matched across a range of variables. This removed the impact of response differences caused by age, gender, type of product consumed and length of customer relationship. Across all the different question types and response scales, significant differences were still found between mail and online respondents, even when data were ipsatised. Notably, online respondents were far less likely to use the end-points of the scale, perhaps indicating issues with the online collection methodology. The conclusion is that the two methods of data collection can not be assumed to be directly inter-changeable, and that the method used can lead to different results if not managed carefully.

Older and wiser?: a comparison of the learning and study strategies of mature age and younger teacher education students

'Non-traditional' students are increasingly a part of university populations. This study examined differences between mature age and younger university students in their learning and study strategies as measured by the Learning and Study Strategies Inventory (LASSI). Subjects were 21 mature age and 104 younger teacher education students enrolled in The Bachelor of Teaching (Primary) course at the Royal Melbourne Institute of Technology. Significant correlations were found between the students' LASSI scores and both their self-reported level of global skill and their perceptions of how difficult the course was. There were significant differences between the two groups in terms of their learning and study strategies, with mature age students reporting themselves to be using effective strategies more often, on average, than younger students. The validity and implications of these findings in terms of student learning, support and instruction in study and learning and in predicting academic success are discussed.

The influence of age on reproductive success and diet in Australasian gannets (Morus Serrator) breeding at Pope's Eye, Port Phillip Bay, Victoria

The influence of age on reproductive success and diet was examined in ‘old’ (experienced; 12 years and older) and ‘young’ (5–8 years of age) Australasian gannets (Morus serrator) breeding at Pope’s Eye, Port Phillip Bay, Victoria during the 2002–2003 breeding period. Although food availability, as indicated by commercial fish catches, throughout this breeding period was low, there were no significant differences in breeding success or chick growth between groups. Nevertheless, old birds tended to have higher reproductive success, replacing more lost eggs and fledging chicks of a greater mass. However, old birds also laid more eggs that failed to hatch. Five fish species, including jack mackerel (Trachurus declivis), barracouta (Thyrsites atun), redbait (Emmelichthys nitidus), anchovy (Engraulis australis) and red mullet (Upeneichthys vlamingii), were important in the gannet diet during this breeding period. There were no significant differences in dietary parameters, including range of species and size of prey, between old and young gannets, nor were there any differences between those of the chicks and their parents, suggesting that adults do not forage selectively for their chicks. This study showed that even during a period of presumed low food availability, when experienced (older) birds might be expected to have enhanced success, the differences between these and less experienced (younger) birds may not be apparent.

The measurement of socio-economic status: investigation of gender-and age-specific indicators in Australia: national health survey 1995

Objective: To investigate thecorrelations between age- and gender-specificmeasures of socio-economic status versus healthstatus as measured by the SF-36.

Design: Population based study.

Participants: 38187 people aged between18 to 79 years who participated in the NationalHealth Survey in 1995.

Results: Factor analysis producedconsistent results that were interpreted interms of five conceptually meaningful domains(employment, housing, migration, family unitand education). The relative rank of thefactors differs between groups and in somecases factor composition requires items to beadded or deleted from the conceptual domains.

Conclusions: Age- and gender-specific SESscores based on these factors had strongerassociations with the physical and mentalcomponents of SF-36 than either an area basedindex or scores derived from males aged 40–44years. Overall the results supported thehypothesis that SES measures composed of socialand demographic items exhibit important age-and gender-specific differences which arerelevant for health.

Mechanisms that contribute to differences in motor performance between young and old adults

This paper examines the physiological mechanisms responsible for differences in the amplitude of force fluctuations between young and old adults. Because muscle force is a consequence of motor unit activity, the potential mechanisms include both motor unit properties and the behavior of motor unit populations. The force fluctuations, however, depend not only on the age of the individual but also on the muscle group performing the task, the type and intensity of the muscle contraction, and the physical activity status of the individual. Computer simulations and experimental findings performed on tasks that involved single agonist and antagonist muscles suggest that differences in force fluctuations are not attributable to motor unit twitch force, motor unit number, or nonuniform activation of the agonist muscle, but that they are influenced by the variability and common modulation of motor unit discharge in both the agonist and antagonist muscles. Because the amplitude of the force fluctuations does not vary linearly with muscle activation, these results suggest that multiple mechanisms contribute to the differences in force fluctuations between young and old adults, although the boundary conditions for each mechanism remain to be determined.

Exercise-induced activation of STAT3 signaling is increased with age

Activation of the transcription factor signal transducers and activators of transcription (STAT) 3 is common to many inflammatory cytokines and growth factors, with recent evidence of involvement in skeletal muscle regeneration. The purpose of this study was to determine whether STAT3 signaling activation is regulated differentially, at rest and following intense resistance exercise, in aged human skeletal muscle. Skeletal muscle biopsies were harvested from healthy younger (n = 11, 20.4 ± 0.8 years) and older men (n = 10, 67.4 ± 1.3 years) under resting conditions and 2 h after the completion of resistance exercise. No differences were evident at rest, whereas the phosphorylation of STAT3 was significantly increased in old (23-fold) compared to young (5-fold) subjects after exercise. This correlated with significantly higher induction of the STAT3 target genes including; interleukin-6 (IL-6), JUNB, c-MYC, and suppressor of cytokine signaling (SOCS) 3 mRNA in older subjects following exercise. Despite increased SOCS3 mRNA, cellular protein abundance was suppressed. SOCS3 protein is an important negative regulator of STAT3 activation and cytokine signaling. Thus, in aged human muscle, elevated responsiveness of the STAT3 signaling pathway and suppressed SOCS3 protein are evident following resistance exercise. These data suggest that enhanced STAT3 signaling responsiveness to proinflammatory factors may impact on mechanisms of muscle repair and regeneration.

Age-related changes in ovarian characteristices, plasma sex steroids and fertility during pubertal development in captive female Murray cod Maccullochella peelii peelii

Age-related changes in ovarian development characteristics and plasma sex steroids in female Murray cod were examined throughout their second, third and fourth years of life to better understand the physiological and endocrine processes associated with puberty in this species in captivity. Spawning performance of 2+ and 3+ year old females was also assessed to identify ontogenetic differences in egg fertility. Puberty was acquired in 38% of 1+ year old females and 100% of age 2+ females. By age 3+, all females had developed full (adult) reproductive function. Ovarian development in pubertal fish was characterised by a rapid transition between cortical alveoli and lipid droplet oogenic phases, coinciding with significantly lower plasma 17β-oestradiol in age 2+ females (p < 0.05). Mean mature oocyte diameter (2.44 mm), post-fertilisation viability (30.80%) and hatchability (0.99%) of eggs from age 2+ females were significantly reduced relative to age 3+ adults (2.81 mm, 84.89% and 23.58%, respectively). Ovaries of pubertal Murray cod exhibited both vitellogenic and ovulatory capacities, yet functional abnormalities during secondary oocyte growth are likely to have contributed to poor egg fertility and consequently, evaluations of age-at-first maturity based on the presence of advanced ovarian stages may overestimate the reproductive potential of younger broodstock populations.

A sex difference in the cortisol response to tail docking and ACTH develops between 1 and 8 weeks of age in lambs

It is important to understand factors that may influence responses to stress, as these factors may also influence vulnerability to pathologies that can develop when stress responses are excessive or prolonged. It is clear that, in adults, the sex of an individual can influence the cortisol response to stress in a stressor specific manner. Nevertheless, the stage of development at which these sex differences emerge is unknown. We tested the hypothesis that there are sex differences in the cortisol response to tail docking and ACTH in lambs of 1 and 8 weeks of age. We also established cortisol responses in males when tail docking was imposed alone and in combination with castration at these ages. In experiment 1, 1 and 8 week old male and female lambs were subjected to sham handling, tail docking or, in males, a combination of tail docking and castration. In experiment 2, we administered ACTH (1.0 IU/kg) to male and female lambs at 1 and 8 weeks of age. There were significant cortisol responses to all treatments at both ages. Sex differences in the cortisol responses to tail docking and ACTH developed between 1 and 8 weeks of age, with females having greater responses than males. The data suggest that the mechanism for the sex difference in response to tail docking may involve the adrenal glands. At both ages, in males, the cortisol response to the combined treatment of tail docking and castration was significantly greater than that for tail docking alone.

How do school day activity patterns differ with age and gender across adolescence?

Purpose
A knowledge of how young people use their time could be instrumental in informing health interventions, modeling consumer behaviors, and planning service delivery. The aim of the present study was to describe age- and gender-related patterns in the self-reported use of time on school days in a large sample of Australian children and adolescents aged between 10 and 18 years.

Methods
A single, detailed use-of-time diary for a school day was collected from 6024 Australians aged 10–18 from several state and regional surveys conducted in the states of South Australia (SA) and Victoria between 2001 and 2006. Time–use profiles were analyzed for a range of active and sedentary state behaviors.

Results
Boys reported higher physical activity levels (PALs), moderate-to-vigorous physical activity (MVPA), and sports than girls. There were no differences in free play, and girls used more active transport. All activity-related variables decreased with age, except active transport, which peaked at 14–15 years. Boys exhibited higher levels of screen time, whereas girls had higher levels of passive transport. Screen time and its components (television, videogames, and computer use) peaked in the peripubertal years.

Conclusion
Age- and gender-related patterns of time use vary greatly within adolescence. This may reflect a mix of biological and social factors.

Differences within and between travel preference, planned travel and choice behavior of Australians traveling to Asian and oversea destinations

This study seeks to examine differences in travel preference, travel intention and destination choice behavior of an aggregated set of Australian travelers. Additionally the study seeks to relate income, age, gender, life cycle and life style of Australians to the preference, planning and choice of Asian and overseas destinations. A large representative sample of 49,000 Australian respondents is utilized. Binomial regression is used to profile travelers to Asia and overseas in general. Specific significant variables and differences are highlighted. There are consistent relationships between travel preference, planning and choice and the set of independent variables of income, life cycle and life style. Age nor gender are not consistently related to travel planning or travel choice. It is apparent that a combination of demographics, e.g. age, income and life cycle, combined with life style will provide a more valuable basis for segmentation of Asian and overseas travel markets. The study aims to profile potential Australian tourists thereby making a contribution to tourism knowledge and market segmentation practice.

Age does not influence the bone response to treadmill exercise in female rats

Purpose: Because it is believed that bone may respond to exercise differently at different ages, we compared bone responses in immature and mature rats after 12 wk of treadmill running.

Methods: Twenty-two immature (5-wk-old) and 21 mature (17-wk-old) female Sprague Dawley rats were randomized into a running (trained, N = 10 immature, 9 mature) or a control group (controls, N = 12 immature, 12 mature) before sacrifice 12 wk later. Rats ran on a treadmill five times per week for 60-70 min at speeds up to 26 m[middle dot]min-1. Both at baseline and after intervention, we measured total body, lumbar spine, and proximal femoral bone mineral, as well as total body soft tissue composition using dual-energy x-ray absorptiometry (DXA) in vivo. After sacrificing the animals, we measured dynamic and static histomorphometry and three-point bending strength of the tibia.

Results: Running training was associated with greater differences in tibial subperiosteal area, cortical cross-sectional area, peak load, stiffness, and moment of inertia in immature and mature rats (P < 0.05). The trained rats had greater periosteal bone formation rates (P < 0.01) than controls, but there was no difference in tibial trabecular bone histomorphometry. Similar running-related gains were seen in DXA lumbar spine area (P = 0.04) and bone mineral content (BMC;P = 0.03) at both ages. For total body bone area and BMC, the immature trained group increased significantly compared with controls (P < 0.05), whereas the mature trained group gained less than did controls (P < 0.01).

Conclusion: In this in vivo model, where a similar physical training program was performed by immature and mature female rats, we demonstrated that both age groups were sensitive to loading and that bone strength gains appeared to result more from changes in bone geometry than from improved material properties.

Complexity, age and motor competence effects on fine motor kinematics

Prehension is a fundamental skill usually performed as part of a complex action sequence in everyday tasks. Using an information processing framework, these studies examined the effects of task complexity, defined by the number of component movement elements (MEs), on performance of prehension tasks. Of interest was how motor control and organisation might be influenced by age and/or motor competence. Three studies and two longitudinal case studies examined kinematic characteristics of prehension tasks involving one-, two- and three-MEs: reach and grasp (low-complexity); reach, grasp and object placement (moderate-complexity); and reach, grasp and double placement of object (high-complexity). A pilot study established the suitability of tasks and procedures for children aged 5-, 8- and 11-years and showed that responses to task complexity and object size manipulations were sensitive to developmental changes, with increasing age associated with faster movements. Study 2 explored complexity and age effects further for children aged 6- and 11-years and adults. Increasing age was associated with shorter and less variable movement times (MTs) and proportional deceleration phases (%DTs) across all MEs. Task complexity had no effect on simple reaction time (SRT), suggesting that there may be little preprogramming of movements beyond the first ME. In addition, MT was longer and more on-line corrections were evident for the high- compared to the moderate-complexity task for ME1. Task complexity had a greater influence on movements in ME2 and ME3 than ME1. Adults, but not children, showed task specific adaptations in ME2. Study 3 examined performance of children with different levels of motor competence aged between 5- and 10-years. Increasing age was associated with shorter SRTs, and MTs for ME1 only. A decrease in motor competence was associated with greater difficulty in planning and controlling movements as indicated by longer SRTs, higher %DTs and more on-line corrections, especially in ME2. Task complexity affected movements in all MEs, with a greater influence on ME1 compared to Study 2. Findings also indicated that performance in MEs following prehension may be especially sensitive to motor competence effects on movement characteristics. Case studies for two children at risk of Developmental Coordination Disorder (DCD) revealed two different patterns of performance change over a 16-17 month period, highlighting the heterogeneous nature of DCD. Overall, findings highlighted age-related differences, and the role of motor competence, in the ability to adapt movements to task specific requirements. Results are useful in guiding movement education programmes for children with both age-appropriate and lower levels of motor competence.