Implementing climate change policies consistent with integrated coastal zone management : a case study of Victoria, Australia

Whilst the proliferation of publications on climate change science is remarkable and makes the updating of responses to impacts of climate change on coastal environments daunting, the area of policy responses is even more confusing and complex. This is because policy responses do not need to consider the science of climate change alone but also have to weigh up the social and economic implications of the impact of climate change on coastal communities. In a federated nation such as Australia this has the added complication of three tiers of Government (Federal, State and local) having to interact in order to co-ordinate any policy responses. These complications should be aided by the internationally accepted concept of Integrated Coastal Zone Management (ICZM) which has been prevalent in Australian coastal planning and management for several decades. This paper uses the State of Victoria, Australia as a case study of how Governments are responding to these challenges through using the principles of ICZM. The paper will review recent inquires and investigations in Australia and canvas the policy responses to these reviews, concentrating on the State of Victoria. The paper analyses how consistent these evolving policy responses are with ICZM and suggests lessons for other jurisdictions arising from the Victorian experience.

The role of community activism in the sustainable development of coastal communities : the Nepean Conservation Group Inc, a case study

The Nepean Conservation Group Inc (NCG) was formed in 1973. The jurisdiction of the NCG covers the whole the Nepean Peninsula, the tiny sliver of land between Port Phillip Bay and Bass Strait, at the end of the Mornington Peninsula, Victoria, Australia. Much of the Nepean Peninsula is moonah woodland. The NCG Constitution states that their primary object is “To make every effort to ensure that the land and waters of the Sorrento Portsea Blairgowrie Area are used with wisdom and foresight and that the competing demands upon them are resolved in the best long terms interests thereof …” The NCG deals with issues as diverse as vegetation and development overlays; heritage; townscapes; public access; neighbourhood character; hooded plovers; historic towns and fire protection. The NCG coordinates Friends Groups that care for bushland parks and coastal reserves, for flora and fauna, on the Nepean Peninsula. The NCG is an advocate for a dynamic fragile coast. Implicit is an expectation that such a local community group is the guardian of their coastal environment. After thirty-eight years of dedicated voluntary work it is timely to reconsider the role of community activism in the sustainable development of coastal regions and towns. This paper examines a number of significant recent issues: public rights to access; subdivision; historic coastal town development and fire protection. The author acknowledges the NCG Committee for their support and access to the NCG papers and archives. This case study is situated in a larger ongoing research investigation.

Adaptation planning for coastal inundation and erosion at the local level : a knowledge systems perspective

Scientific projections for climate change induced sea level rise highlight the potential for serious consequences in low lying coastal areas, through impacts upon: built infrastructure; beneficial uses; and ecological values. An area of particular concern relates to the ways in which issues associated with land may be subject to future inundation and, or, erosion. Responding to such issues is complex and challenging, requiring consideration of multiple sources of evidence (with varying levels of certainty), diverse organisational settings and priorities, and multiple perspectives on what the evidence means. Further, limited attention has been directed towards exploring the knowledge dynamics associated with coastal adaption planning. In this paper we explore the knowledge dynamics associated with coastal adaption planning, in order to highlight the inter-organisational and inter-personal challenges involved. We do so by drawing on the views expressed in semi structured interviews by stakeholders with an interest in coastal climate change. The particular focus is on exploring how different actors perceive coastal adaption planning process, and the tensions, challenges, and implications associated with, and arising from, the way in which coastal adaptation knowledge is exchanged.

Negotiating local decision making to manage coastal inundation : certainty, precedence, precaution and practicality

Scientific projections for climate change induced sea level rise highlight the potential for serious consequences in low lying coastal areas, through impacts upon: built infrastructure; beneficial uses; and ecological values. An area of particular concern relates to the ways in which local decision makers work through the issues associated with new development proposals on land that may be subject to future inundation, whether permanent or temporary. In making such issues, local authorities need to consider multiple sources of evidence, and multiple perspectives on what the evidence means. In this paper we examine decision making about coastal development in south west Victoria to explore how such issues are worked through, in terms of the responsibilities of different actors, and the tensions, challenges, and implications associated with, and arising from, the way in which various actors participate in, and negotiate their way through, decision making processes. In doing so, our particular focus is on the way in which different actor types engage with and interpret particular pieces of information (e.g. estimates of sea level rise and LSIO information) which are central to the decision making process. While the focus is on local decision making in south west Victoria, the insights generated may have broader relevance.

Downstream spawning migration by the amphidromous Australian grayling (Prototroctes maraena) in a coastal river in south-eastern Australia

Understanding the reasons and cues for migration is crucial for developing effective conservation and management strategies of diadromous fishes. Spawning and movement patterns of the threatened diadromous Australian grayling (Prototroctes maraena) were investigated in the Bunyip River, Victoria, using drift sampling (2008–2011) and acoustic telemetry (2009–2010) during the autumn–winter spawning period of each year. Fifty-five adult fish (2009: n = 21; 2010: n = 34) were tagged and released in February ~15–30 km upstream of the Bunyip River estuary. Thirteen fish (2009: n = 7; 2010: n = 6) undertook rapid downstream migrations from March to April to reaches immediately upstream of the estuary. Drifting eggs were detected at multiple sites between April and July; however, the majority (78.8%) were collected in the lower reaches within ~0.5 km of the estuary in early–mid-May. Tagged adult fish arrived in this area 1–4 weeks before eggs were detected and usually moved back upstream within 2 weeks following the peak egg abundance. Downstream migration and peak egg abundance were associated with increased river flows. Although the proportion of fish that undertook migrations was low, low rates of tag retention in this species likely account for the failure to detect migration by many of the tagged individuals.

Conservation hotspots : implications of intense spatial area use by breeding male and female loggerheads at the Mediterranean’s largest rookery

The implementation of appropriate protection measures for endangered species in protected areas requires knowledge of their fine-scale habitat use. In May and June of 2006 and 2007, we used GPS loggers (some linked to the Argos system) and a conventional Argos transmitter to track male and female loggerhead turtles Caretta caretta in the vicinity of the breeding area of Laganas Bay within the National Marine Park of Zakynthos, Greece. We obtained (1) 9681 useable locations (mean: 1383 locations ind.–1; range: 519 to 2198 locations) from Tracktag GPS loggers attached to 7 females for a mean duration of 34 d (range: 17 to 52 d); (2) 1245 useable locations (mean: 311 locations ind.–1; range: 38 to 1110 locations) from 4 males fitted with Fastloc Argos tags for a mean duration of 29 d (range: 3 to 51 d) and (3) 100 locations from 1 male fitted with a conventional Argos satellite tag tracked for 128 d. GPS data indicated that before the onset of nesting, both males and females primarily used an area within 500 m of the shore along a core 9 km stretch of coastline, where existing protective legislation requires strengthening. Our observations suggest that a 76.7% female-biased operational sex ratio, measured previously from in-water surveys, may represent a realistic sex ratio estimate in the period before nesting starts. In the first month following the onset of nesting, female spatial distribution remained similar, whereas most males departed for distant areas presumably to forage. Our study provides quantitative evidence of the need to improve the management planning and conservation measures to protect sea turtles in a coastal breeding area, and new insights on male turtle migration.

The broad-scale distribution of five jellyfish species across a temperate coastal environment

Jellyfish (medusae) are sometimes the most noticeable and abundant members of coastal planktonic communities, yet ironically, this high conspicuousness is not reflected in our overall understanding of their spatial distributions across large expanses of water. Here, we set out to elucidate the spatial (and temporal) patterns for five jellyfish species (Phylum Cnidaria, Orders Rhizostomeae and Semaeostomeae) across the Irish & Celtic Seas, an extensive shelf-sea area at Europe’s northwesterly margin encompassing several thousand square kilometers. Data were gathered using two independent methods: (1) surface-counts of jellyfish from ships of opportunity, and (2) regular shoreline surveys for stranding events over three consecutive years. Jellyfish species displayed distinct species-specific distributions, with an apparent segregation of some species. Furthermore, a different species composition was noticeable between the northern and southern parts of the study area. Most importantly, our data suggests that jellyfish distributions broadly reflect the major hydrographic regimes (and associated physical discontinuities) of the study area, with mixed water masses possibly acting as a trophic barrier or non-favourable environment for the successful growth and reproduction of jellyfish species.

Jellyfish aggregations and leatherback turtle foraging patterns in a temperate coastal environment

Leatherback turtles (Dermochelys coriacea) are obligate predators of gelatinous zooplankton. However, the spatial relationship between predator and prey remains poorly understood beyond sporadic and localized reports. To examine how jellyfish (Phylum Cnidaria: Orders Semaeostomeae and Rhizostomeae) might drive the broad-scale distribution of this wide ranging species, we employed aerial surveys to map jellyfish throughout a temperate coastal shelf area bordering the northeast Atlantic. Previously unknown, consistent aggregations of Rhizostoma octopus extending over tens of square kilometers were identified in distinct coastal “hotspots” during consecutive years (2003–2005). Examination of retrospective sightings data (>50 yr) suggested that 22.5% of leatherback distribution could be explained by these hotspots, with the inference that these coastal features may be sufficiently consistent in space and time to drive long-term foraging associations.

Unauthorised human use of an urban coastal wetland sanctuary: current and future patterns

Urban expansion brings profound impacts and challenges to many ecosystems, including wetlands. Unauthorised public access to wetland sanctuaries can lead to a number of management problems, such as increasing disturbance to migratory shorebirds. We investigate unauthorised human use of a coastal urban wetland located in Melbourne, Australia, and use current results to predict future patterns of visitation under different management and urban development scenarios. Despite being officially closed to the public, 20.8% of the 574 ha wetland experienced human intrusions during the sampling period. These were most frequent in the section which directly abuts residential development where over 50% of the wetland experienced intrusions. The most frequently observed activities were walking (4.8 ± 4.9 intrusions per observation day), dog walking (8.5 ± 4.5), cycling (3.0 ± 1.8) and motorised trail bike riding (2.5 ± 1.0). There were significant negative relationships between the occurrence of intrusions and distance from the wetland boundary and access points. Walkers and dog walkers were likely to intrude more deeply into the wetlands than other users. We predict that once residential development is completed around the entire perimeter of the wetland that 48% of the total area will be subject to intrusions. This will increase to 58.8% if internal management tracks are opened for public use. We recommend that the current access policy is maintained, and compliance is enhanced through education and additional physical barriers. © 2006 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Conservation gone to the dogs : when canids rule the beach in small coastal reserves

On most developed coastlines, dunes backing ocean beaches constitute an urbanised landscape mosaic containing remnant pockets of small conservation areas. Urbanised beaches are also prime sites for domestic dogs, known to be environmentally harmful in many other settings. It is unknown, however, whether small, protected parcels of dune are adequate for biological conservation and whether dogs compromise their functional conservation objectives. Here we examine, for two small (2 km ocean boundary) reserves in Eastern Australia abutting an urban area, whether such small reserves can continue to function as effective conservation instruments on ocean beaches, using scavenger community composition and efficiency to assess ecosystem function. Two non-native species of canids—domestic dogs (Canis lupus familiaris) and red foxes (Vulpes vulpes)—were ubiquitous and numerous inside conservation areas, to the point of having become the most abundant vertebrate scavengers at the beach-dune interface, outcompeting native scavengers for wave-cast carrion. Dogs and foxes have effectively supplanted raptors, normally abundant on non-urban beaches in the region, and other avian scavengers, as the principal consumers of animal carcasses both inside the declared reserves and at the urban beach. Whilst the ecological threats posed by foxes are widely and intensively addressed in Australia in the form of fox-control programs, dog controls are less common and stringent. Our data emphasize, however, that managing domestic dogs may be required to the same extent in order to maintain key forms and functions in coastal reserves situated close to urban areas.

Protected species use of a coastal marine migratory corridor connecting marine protected areas

The establishment of protected corridors linking the breeding and foraging grounds of many migratory species remains deficient, particularly in the world's oceans. For example, Australia has recently established a network of Commonwealth Marine Reserves, supplementing existing State reserves, to protect a wide range of resident and migratory marine species; however, the routes used by mobile species to access these sites are often unknown. The flatback marine turtle (Natator depressus) is endemic to the continental shelf of Australia, yet information is not available about how this species uses the marine area. We used a geospatial approach to delineate a coastal corridor from 73 adult female flatback postnesting migratory tracks from four rookeries along the north-west coast of Australia. A core corridor of 1,150 km length and 30,800 km2 area was defined, of which 52 % fell within 11 reserves, leaving 48 % (of equivalent size to several Commonwealth Reserves) of the corridor outside of the reserve network. Despite limited data being available for other marine wildlife in this region, humpback whale migratory tracks overlapped with 96 % of the core corridor, while the tracks of three other species overlapped by 5-10 % (blue whales, olive ridley turtles, whale sharks). The overlap in the distribution ranges of at least 20 other marine vertebrates (dugong, cetaceans, marine turtles, sea snakes, crocodiles, sharks) with the corridor also imply potential use. In conclusion, this study provides valuable information towards proposing new locations requiring protection, as well as identifying high-priority network linkages between existing marine protected areas. © 2014 Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg.

Employing sea-level rise scenarios to strategically select sea turtle nesting habitat important for long-term management at a temperate breeding area

Management strategies to protect endangered species primarily focus on safeguarding habitats currently perceived as important (due to high-density use, rarity or contribution to the biological cycle), rather than sites of future ecological importance. This discrepancy is particularly relevant for species inhabiting beaches and coastal areas that may be lost due to sea-level rise over the next 100 years through climate change. Here, we modelled four sea-level rise (SLR) scenarios (0.2, 0.6, 0.9 and 1.3 m) to determine the future vulnerability and viability of nesting habitat (six distinct nesting beaches totalling about 6 km in length) at a key loggerhead sea turtle (Caretta caretta) rookery (Zakynthos, Greece) in the Mediterranean. For each of the six nesting beaches, we identified (1) the area of beach currently used by turtles, (2) the area of the beach anticipated to become inundated under each SLR, (3) the area of beach anticipated to become unsuitable for nesting under each SLR, (4) the potential for habitat loss under the examined SLR, and (5) the extent to which the beaches may shift in relation to natural (i.e. cliffs) and artificial (i.e. beach front development) physical barriers. Even under the most conservative 0.2 m SLR scenario, about 38% (range: 31–48%) total nesting beach area would be lost, while an average 13% (range: 7–17%) current nesting beach area would be lost. About 4 km length of nesting habitat (representing 85% of nesting activity) would be lost under the 0.9 m scenario, because cliffs prevent landward beach migration. In comparison, while the other 2 km of beach (representing 15% nests) is also at high risk, it has the capacity for landward migration, because of an adjoining sand-dune system. Therefore, managers should strengthen actions on this latter area, as a climatically critical safeguard for future sea turtle nesting activity, in parallel to regularly assessing and revising measures on the current high-use nesting habitats of this important Mediterranean loggerhead population.

Loss of 'blue carbon' from coastal salt marshes following habitat disturbance

Increased recognition of the global importance of salt marshes as 'blue carbon' (C) sinks has led to concern that salt marshes could release large amounts of stored C into the atmosphere (as CO2) if they continue undergoing disturbance, thereby accelerating climate change. Empirical evidence of C release following salt marsh habitat loss due to disturbance is rare, yet such information is essential for inclusion of salt marshes in greenhouse gas emission reduction and offset schemes. Here we investigated the stability of salt marsh (Spartinaalterniflora) sediment C levels following seagrass (Thallasiatestudinum) wrack accumulation; a form of disturbance common throughout the world that removes large areas of plant biomass in salt marshes. At our study site (St Joseph Bay, Florida, USA), we recorded 296 patches (7.5 ± 2.3 m(2) mean area ± SE) of vegetation loss (aged 3-12 months) in a salt marsh meadow the size of a soccer field (7 275 m(2)). Within these disturbed patches, levels of organic C in the subsurface zone (1-5 cm depth) were ~30% lower than the surrounding undisturbed meadow. Subsequent analyses showed that the decline in subsurface C levels in disturbed patches was due to loss of below-ground plant (salt marsh) biomass, which otherwise forms the main component of the long-term 'refractory' C stock. We conclude that disturbance to salt marsh habitat due to wrack accumulation can cause significant release of below-ground C; which could shift salt marshes from C sinks to C sources, depending on the intensity and scale of disturbance. This mechanism of C release is likely to increase in the future due to sea level rise; which could increase wrack production due to increasing storminess, and will facilitate delivery of wrack into salt marsh zones due to higher and more frequent inundation.

Science into policy? Discourse, coastal management and knowledge

The world's coastal resources are under pressure, even more so under climate change with 90% of the world's population living near or along our coastal zone. Ecologically, this zone is also the most productive, and the mainstay of economic livelihoods on a global scale. Managing the coast effectively is crucial, but as an area it remains contested. Despite multiple efforts to manage the coast, it remains a contested space. This paper offers a reflection into the ways in which different discourses influence and impact on one specific dimension of coastal zone management-the transmission of science into the policy domain. Using historical and discourse analysis, we find that the science-policy interface is largely constructed within two knowledge discourses: (i) scientific knowledge and (ii) local knowledge. This arbitrary separation into a binary discursive landscape mitigates against science-policy integration in practice especially given each discourse in itself, encompasses multiple forms of knowledge. We argue that in order to better understand how to build scientific research outputs into policy, decision makers and researchers need to understand how knowledge works in practice, overcome this dichotomous construction of knowledge and specifically, re-construct or transition the notion of 'science as knowledge' into 'all knowledge types' into policy.

Examining the functional role of current area closures used for the conservation of an overexploited and highly mobile fishery species

Protecting essential habitats through the implementation of area closures has been recognized as a useful management tool for rebuilding overfished populations and minimizing habitat degradation. School shark (Galeorhinus galeus) have suffered significant stock declines in Australia; however, recent stock assessments suggest the population may have stabilized and the protection of closed nursery areas has been identified as a key management strategy to rebuilding their numbers. Young-of-The-year (YOY) and juvenile G. galeus were acoustically tagged and monitored to determine ontogenetic differences in residency and seasonal use of an important protected nursery area (Shark Refuge Area or SRA) in southeastern Tasmania. BothYOYand juvenile G. galeus showed a distinct seasonal pattern of occurrence in the SRAwith most departing the area during winter and only a small proportion of YOY (33%) and no juveniles returning the following spring, suggesting areas outside the SRA may also be important during these early life-history stages. While these behaviors confirm SRAs continue to function as essential habitat during G. galeus early life history, evidence of YOY and juveniles emigrating from these areas within their first 1-2 years and the fact that few YOY return suggest that these areas may only afford protection for a more limited amount of time than previously thought. Determining the importance of neighbouring coastal waters and maintaining the use of traditional fisheries management tools are therefore required to ensure effective conservation of G. galeus during early life history.