Influence of grain supplements during winter on liveweight, mohair growth and mohair quality of weaner Angora goats

To identify methods to improve growth and mohair production of weaned Angora goats (mean liveweight 18-20 kg) during their first winter, two supplementary feeding experiments using whole-grain barley and lupins were conducted on a farm in southern New South Wales, in a region where weaner illthrift had been reported. Experiment 1 was a 2×2 + 1 factorial with 16 replicate goats; two feeding levels (115 or 230 g/day of whole-barley grain)× two periods of feeding (4 or 8 weeks) + Control (grazing only). Experiment 2 had five treatments × 13 replicate goats; three treatments fed 230 g/day of whole-barley grain for periods of 2 or 3 months and two treatments fed a 50:50 mixture of lupin and barley grain at 350 g/day for 2 or 4 months. Goats were individually fed and then all returned together for grazing. There were no effects of feeding in Experiment 1 and variations of feeding 230 g/day of barley in Experiment 2 provided no benefit. Feeding lupin/barley for 4 months increased liveweight (gain 59 g/day), mohair production, mohair fibre diameter and the incidence of medullated fibre. About 25% of this ration was not eaten by eight goats, reducing treatment average intake to 295 g/day. By the end of spring, there was no difference in treatment liveweights. Regression constants indicated that for each 1 μm increase in mean fibre diameter, greasy fleece weight increased 35 g and for each 1 kg increase in pre-shearing liveweight, greasy fleece weight increased 26 g. The results show that Angora weaner goats can grow during winter, provided their energy and protein needs for growth are met. Improved pasture management and higher levels of supplementary feeding to weaned Angoras are indicated compared with current practices on farms in Australia.

Formulation optimization for high drug loading colonic drug delivery carrier

High drug loading (DL) carrier is an effective way to cure the cancerous cells. High drug loading is also one of the key issues in the drug delivery research, especially the colonic drug delivery system by oral administration. The times of drug intake could be remarkably reduced if high drug loading carriers are administered. At the same time, the related formulation materials could be effectively utilized. One major obstacle with the preparation of this system is the difficulty to encapsulate the hydrophilic drug into hydrophobic encapsulation polymer. A design of high drug loading delivery system with biodegradable, biocompatible materials and optimization of the fabrication process is a potential solution to solve the problem. So in this research, 5-Fluorouracil (5-FU) loaded Poly (lactide-co-glycolide) (PLGA) nanoparticles were prepared by double emulsion and solvent evaporation method. Several fabrication parameters including theoretical drug loading, volume ratio of outer water phase to the first emulsion, pH value of outer aqueous phase and emulsifier PVA concentration were optimized to get a high drug loading nanoparticles. The result shows that with the increase of theoretical drug loading, the actual drug loading increased gradually. When adjusted the pH value of outer aqueous phase to the isoelectric point (8.02) of 5-Fluorouracil, the drug loading exhibited a higher one compared to other pH value solution. Relative higher volume ratio of outer water phase to the first emulsion was also beneficial for the enhancement of drug loading. But the nanoparticles size increased simultaneously due to the lower shearing force. When increased the PVA concentration, the drug loading showed an increase first and following a drop.

Wear characteristics of ultra-hard cutting tools when machining austempered ductile iron

Nodularised Ductile Cast Iron, when subjected to heat treatment processes - austenitising and austempering produces Austempered Ductile Iron (ADI). The microstructure of ADI also known as "ausferrite" consists of ferrite, austenite and graphite nodules. Machining ADI using conventional techniques is often a problematic issue due to the microstructural phase transformation from austenite to martensite during machining. This paper evaluates the wear characteristics of ultra hard cutting tools when machining ADI and its effect on machinability. Machining trials consist of turning ADI (ASTMGrade3) using two sets of PCBN tools with 90% and 50% CBN content and two sets of ceramics tools; Aluminium Oxide Titanium Carbide and Silicon Carbide - whisker reinforced Ceramic. The cutting parameters chosen are categorized as roughing and finishing conditions; the roughing condition comprises of constant cutting speed (425 m/min) and depth of cut (2mm) combined with variable feed rates of 0.1, 0.2, 0.3 and 0.4mm/rev. The finishing condition comprises of constant cutting speed (700 m/min) and depth of cut (0.5mm) combined with variable feed rates of 0.1, 0.2, 0.3 and 0.4mm/rev. The benchmark condition to evaluate the performance of the cutting tools was tool wear evaluation, surface texture analysis and cutting force analysis. The paper analyses thermal softening of the workpiece by the tool and its effect on the shearing mechanism under rough and finish machining conditions in term of lower cutting forces and enhanced surface texture of the machined part.

The allometric relationship between mean fibre diameter of mohair and the fleece-free liveweight of Angora goats over their lifetime

As mean fibre diameter (MFD) is the primary determinant of mohair price we aimed to quantify the lifetime changes in mohair MFDas Angora goats aged and grew. Measurements were made over 12 shearing periods on a population of Angora goats representing the current range and diversity of genetic origins including South African, Texan and interbred admixtures of these and Australian sources. Records of sire, dam, birthweight, birth parity, liveweight, fleece growth and fleece quality were taken for does and castrated males (wethers) (n = 267 animals). Fleece-free liveweights (FFL_wt) were determined for each goat at shearing time by subtracting the greasy fleece weight from the liveweight recorded immediately before shearing. A restricted maximum likelihood growth curve model was developed for relating MFD to FFL_wt, age and other measurements.Asimple way of describing the results is:MFD= k (FFL_wt)b E; where k is a parameter that can vary in a systematic way with shearing(age), breed, weaning weight, sire, dam and individual; b is a parameter that is the same for nearly the whole study; and E are independent errors from a log-normal distribution. The analysis shows that ^b = 0.34, with s.e. (^b) = 0.021. Thus, mohair MFD was allometrically related to the cube root of FFLwt over the lifetime of Angora goats. However, the allometric proportionality constant differed in a systematic way with age at shearing, genetic strain, weaning weight, sire, dam and individual. For Texan-breed goats, MFD decreased as weaning weight increased (P = 0.00016). The findings indicate that management factors that affect liveweight and weaning weight have lifetime effects on mohair fibre diameter and therefore the value of mohair and the profitability of the mohair enterprise.

The boundary lubrication of chemically grafted and cross-linked hyaluronic acid in phosphate buffered saline and lipid solutions measured by the surface forces apparatus

High molecular weight hyaluronic acid (HA) is present in articular joints and synovial fluid at high concentrations; yet despite numerous studies, the role of HA in joint lubrication is still not clear. Free HA in solution does not appear to be a good lubricant, being negatively charged and therefore repelled from most biological, including cartilage, surfaces. Recent enzymatic experiments suggested that mechanically or physically (rather than chemically) trapped HA could function as an “adaptive” or “emergency” boundary lubricant to eliminate wear damage in shearing cartilage surfaces. In this work, HA was chemically grafted to a layer of self-assembled amino-propyl-triethoxy-silane (APTES) on mica and then cross-linked. The boundary lubrication behavior of APTES and of chemically grafted and cross-linked HA in both electrolyte and lipid 1,2-dioleoyl-sn-glycero-3-phosphocholine (DOPC) solutions was tested with a surface forces apparatus (SFA). Despite the high coefficient of friction (COF) of μ ≈ 0.50, the chemically grafted HA gel significantly improved the lubrication behavior of HA, particularly the wear resistance, in comparison to free HA. Adding more DOPC lipid to the solution did not improve the lubrication of the chemically grafted and cross-linked HA layer. Damage of the underlying mica surface became visible at higher loads (pressure >2 MPa) after prolonged sliding times. It has generally been assumed that damage caused by or during sliding, also known as “abrasive friction”, which is the main biomedical/clinical/morphological manifestation of arthritis, is due to a high friction force and, therefore, a large COF, and that to prevent surface damage or wear (abrasion) one should therefore aim to reduce the COF, which has been the traditional focus of basic research in biolubrication, particularly in cartilage and joint lubrication. Here we combine our results with previous ones on grafted and cross-linked HA on lipid bilayers, and lubricin-mediated lubrication, and conclude that for cartilage surfaces, a high COF can be associated with good wear protection, while a low COF can have poor wear resistance. Both of these properties depend on how the lubricating molecules are attached to and organized at the surfaces, as well as the structure and mechanical, viscoelastic, elastic, and physical properties of the surfaces, but the two phenomena are not directly or simply related. We also conclude that to provide both the low COF and good wear protection of joints under physiological conditions, some or all of the four major components of joints—HA, lubricin, lipids, and the cartilage fibrils—must act synergistically in ways (physisorbed, chemisorbed, grafted and/or cross-linked) that are still to be determined.

Adaptive mechanically controlled lubrication mechanism found in articular joints

Articular cartilage is a highly efficacious water-based tribological system that is optimized to provide low friction and wear protection at both low and high loads (pressures) and sliding velocities that must last over a lifetime. Although many different lubrication mechanisms have been proposed, it is becoming increasingly apparent that the tribological performance of cartilage cannot be attributed to a single mechanism acting alone but on the synergistic action of multiple "modes" of lubrication that are adapted to provide optimum lubrication as the normal loads, shear stresses, and rates change. Hyaluronic acid (HA) is abundant in cartilage and synovial fluid and widely thought to play a principal role in joint lubrication although this role remains unclear. HA is also known to complex readily with the glycoprotein lubricin (LUB) to form a cross-linked network that has also been shown to be critical to the wear prevention mechanism of joints. Friction experiments on porcine cartilage using the surface forces apparatus, and enzymatic digestion, reveal an "adaptive" role for an HA-LUB complex whereby, under compression, nominally free HA diffusing out of the cartilage becomes mechanically, i.e., physically, trapped at the interface by the increasingly constricted collagen pore network. The mechanically trapped HA-LUB complex now acts as an effective (chemically bound) "boundary lubricant"-reducing the friction force slightly but, more importantly, eliminating wear damage to the rubbing/shearing surfaces. This paper focuses on the contribution of HA in cartilage lubrication; however, the system as a whole requires both HA and LUB to function optimally under all conditions.

The allometric relationship between clean mohair growth and the fleece-free liveweight of Angora goats is affected by liveweight change

Clean fleece weight (CFWt) is affected by liveweight and change in liveweight in Merino sheep, Angora and cashmere goats. However, how these relationships progress as animals age has not been elucidated. Measurements were made over 12 shearing periods on a population of Angora goats representing the current range and diversity of genetic origins including South African, Texan and interbred admixtures of these and Australian sources. Records of breed, sire, dam, date of birth, dam age, birthweight, birth parity, weaning weight, liveweight, fleece growth and fleece quality were taken for does and castrated males (wethers) (n = 267 animals). Fleece-free liveweights (FFLwt) were determined for each goat at shearing time by subtracting the greasy fleece weight from the liveweight recorded immediately before shearing. The average of the FFLwt at the start of the period and the FFLWt at the end of the period was calculated (AvFFLwt). Liveweight change (LwtCh) was the change in FFLwt over the period between shearings. A restricted maximum likelihood model was developed for CFWt, after log10 transformation, which allowed the observations of the same animal at different ages to be correlated in an unstructured manner. A simple way of describing the results is: CFWt = κ (AvFFLwt)β, where κ is a parameter that can vary in a systematic way with shearing age, shearing treatment and LwtCh; and β is an allometric coefficient that only varies with LwtCh. CFWt was proportional to FFLwt0.67 but only when liveweight was lost at the rate of 5–10 kg during a shearing interval of 6 months. The allometric coefficient declined to 0.3 as LwtCh increased from 10 kg loss to 20 kg gain during a shearing interval. A consequence is that, within an age group of Angora goats, the largest animals will be the least efficient in converting improved nutrition to mohair.

The relationship between the incidence of medullated fibres in mohair and live weight over the lifetime of Angora goats

The presence of even a small amount of medullated fibre, in otherwise high quality mohair, may have a pronounced adverse effect on its value and end-use potential. However, there is considerable confusion about the effects, if any, of environmental variables and management upon the incidence of medullated fibres in mohair. This study examined how the incidence of medullated fibres (Med, % by number) is related to the fleece-free live weight (FFLwt) of Angora goats of different genetic origins over their lifetime, and how the relationship varies with other lifetime factors. Measurements were made over 11 shearing periods of 6 months, on a population of Angora goats representing the current range and diversity of genetic origins in Australia, including South African, Texan and interbred admixtures of these and Australian sources. Records of breed, sire, dam, date of birth, dam age, birth weight, birth parity, weaning weight, live weight, fleece growth and fleece quality were taken for castrated males (wethers) (n = 94 animals). A restricted maximum likelihood (REML) model was developed for log10(Med + 1), which allowed the observations of the same animal at different ages to be correlated in an unstructured manner. Med varied between 0.1% and 4.3%. The median average FFLwt during a shearing interval increased from 15 kg at 1 year old to 59 kg at 6 years old. Generally, within each shearing interval, Med increased with increasing average FFLwt. However, the size and shape of the relationship differed greatly between shearing ages. For example, at 3.5 years of age Med increased from about 1.1% at an average FFLwt of 26 kg to 2.6% at 50 kg, whilst at 5.0 years of age Med only changed from 1.4% at 32 kg to 1.6% at 56 kg. Goats with mixed genetic parentage showed an increase in Med at some shearings, particularly at younger ages. Variation in animal nutrition, as measured by live weight change during shearing periods, did not affect Med. The results supplement our earlier findings that mohair mean fibre diameter and clean mohair fleece weight, but not staple length, are greater in larger Angora goats. Live weight needs to be taken into account in genetic evaluation of the incidence of medullated fibres. We conclude that any advantage in handling fewer but larger Angora goats rather than more but smaller goats will come at the detriment of producing lower quality mohair, both in terms of increased Med and mean fibre diameter.

Variation in mohair staple length over the lifetime of Angora goats

Previous work has shown that, within an Angora goat flock, clean fleece weight is proportional to fleece-free liveweight (FFLwt)2/3 and for goats of the same age and cohort, the mean mohair fibre diameter is proportional to FFLwt1/3. This indicates that fibre length might not be related to the size of animals. This study examines how mohair staple length (SL) is related to FFLwt of Angora goats of different genetic origins over their lifetime and how the relationship varies with other lifetime factors. Measurements were made over 11 shearing periods on a population of Angora goats representing the current range and diversity of genetic origins in Australia, including South African, Texan and interbred admixtures of these and Australian sources. Records of breed, sire, dam, date of birth, dam age, birthweight, birth parity, weaning weight, liveweight, fleece growth and fleece quality were taken for castrated males (wethers) (n = 94 animals). FFLwt were determined for each goat at shearing time by subtracting the greasy fleece weight from the liveweight recorded immediately before shearing. The average of the FFLwt at the start of the period and the FFLWt at the end of the period was calculated. Liveweight change (LwtCh) was the change in FFLwt over the period between shearings. A restricted maximum likelihood model was developed for SL, which allowed the observations of the same animal at different ages to be correlated in an unstructured manner. Average SL differed from ~12.0 to ~14.5 cm, depending on age. There were no consistent effects of season. At any age, an increase of 10 kg LwtCh between animals results in about a 0.34 (s.e. = 0.087) cm increase in SL. There was no evidence of an effect of FFLwt on SL. The results confirm our hypothesis that within a single age cohort of Angora goats, there is very little, if any, relationship between the liveweight and SL of individual animals. This implies that the biological determinants of size of fibres related to cross-sectional area are substantially different to the size determinants of fibre length.

The relationship of the incidence of medullated fibres to the dimensional properties of mohair over the lifetime of Angora goats

In a range of animals, increasing mean fibre diameter (MFD) of fibre is associated with an increasing incidence of medullated fibres (Med). It would thus be expected that Med in mohair fleeces, from animals in a flock, would be related to the MFD of those fleeces. MFD of mohair is not the only dimensional attribute of fibres. Med in mohair is phenotypically and genetically related to the size of animals. This study examined how Med is related to dimensional properties of mohair over the lifetime of Angora goats and how the relationship varies with other lifetime factors. The relationship found is then examined to determine the extent that the relationship can be explained by variations in animal size of the goats. Measurements were made over 11 shearing periods on a population of Angora goats representing the current range and diversity of genetic origins in Australia, including South African, Texan and interbred admixtures of these and Australian sources. Records of breed, sire, dam, date of birth, dam age, birth weight, birth parity, weaning weight, live weight, fleece growth and fleece attributes were taken for castrated males (wethers). Animals’ fleece-free live weight (FFLwt, kg) were determined for each goat at shearing time by subtracting the greasy fleece weight from the live weight recorded immediately prior to shearing. The average of the FFLwt at the start of the period and the FFLwt at the end of the period was calculated. Two restricted maximum likelihood (REML) models were developed to relate Med to MFD, staple length (SL) and other lifetime factors. One model allowed FFLwt in the model and the other excluded FFLwt. With the exception of the 1.5 years shearing, Med strongly increased with increasing MFD whether or not adjustments were made for FFLwt measurements. In particular Med increased by 2.0% for each 1 μm increase in MFD, with no adjustment for FFLwt measurements, and increased by 1.5% for each 1 μm increase in MFD, with adjustment for FFLwt measurements. Within each shearing interval increasing average FFLwt was associated with increasing incidence of Med in a similar way to that which has been previously reported without including MFD in the model. There was no evidence that SL needed to be included in the models for Med. Mohair grown by the goats of Mixed genetic background grew mohair which had a higher incidence of Med at ages 2 and 2.5 years and the trend was apparent in other shearing periods. We can conclude that there is both a large response of Med to live weight and a large response to MFD, and that these responses are largely functionally separate. While the response to MFD is in accord with earlier work, there is an unrelated and unreported physiological mechanism that favours the production of Med in larger Angora goats. Clearly, larger Angora goats are biologically different compared with smaller animals from the same flock, in ways that are not purely related to the allometrics of size.

The union ticket

A short story based on the brutality of the Shearers' Union in 1894

Nutrition, management and other environmental influences on the quality and production of mohair and cashmere with particular reference to mediterranean and annual temperate climatic zones : a review

Goat fibre production is affected by genetic and environmental influences. Environmental influences which are the subject of this review include bio–geophysical factors (photoperiod, climate–herbage system and soil–plant trace nutrient composition), nutrition factors and management factors. Nutrition and management influences discussed include rate of stocking, supplementary feeding of energy and protein, liveweight change, parturition and management during shearing. While experimental data suggest affects of seasonal photoperiod on the growth of mohair and cashmere are large, these results may have confounded changes in temperature with photoperiod. The nutritional variation within and among years is the most important climatic factor influencing mohair and cashmere production and quality. Mohair quality and growth is affected significantly by rate of stocking and during periods of liveweight loss by supplementary feeding of either energy or protein. Strategic use of supplements, methods for rapid introduction of cereal grains, influence of dietary roughage on intake and the economics of supplementary feeding are discussed. Cashmere production of young, low producing goats does not appear to be affected by energy supplementation, but large responses to energy supplementation have been measured in more productive cashmere goat strains. The designs of these cashmere nutrition experiments are reviewed. Evidence for the hypothesis that energy-deprived cashmere goats divert nutrients preferentially to cashmere growth is reviewed. The influence and potential use of liveweight manipulation in affecting mohair and cashmere production and quality are described. Estimates of the energy requirements for the maintenance of fibre goats and the effect of pregnancy and lactation on mohair and cashmere growth are summarised. The effects and importance of management and hygiene during fibre harvesting (shearing) in producing quality fibre is emphasised. The review concludes that it is important to assess the results of scientific experiments for the total environmental content within which they were conducted. The review supports the view that scientific experiments should use control treatments appropriate to the environment under study as well as having controls relevant for other environments. In mediterranean and annual temperate environments, appropriate controls are liveweight loss and liveweight maintenance treatments. Mohair producers must graze goats at moderate rates of stocking to maximise animal welfare, but in so doing, they will produce heavier goats and coarser mohair. In mediterranean and annual temperate environments, seasonal changes in liveweight are large and influence both quality and production of mohair and cashmere. Mohair and cashmere producers can manipulate liveweight by supplementary feeding energy during dry seasons to minimise liveweight loss, but the economics of such feeding needs to be carefully examined. Strategic benefits can be obtained by enhancing the growth of young does prior to mating and for higher producing cashmere goats.

The value of visual fleece assessment in addition to objective measurements in identifying Angora goats of greater clean mohair production

Visual assessment of the fleece of Merino sheep is an accepted method to aid genetic improvement but there is little evidence to support the use of visual assessment for improving mohair production. This paper examines the extent that visual traits, including staple length, character (staple crimp), staple definition, tippiness, style and staple entanglement, are related to clean fleece weight in animals of similar live weight and mean fibre diameter (MFD) from the same flock. Measurements were made over 9 shearing periods on a population of castrated Angora males (wethers) goats representing the current range and diversity of genetic origins in Australia, including South African, Texan and interbred admixtures of these and Australian sources (these different genetic origins are defined as Breed in this work). Data on genetic origin, sire, dam, lifetime characteristics (date of birth, dam age, birth weight, birth parity (single or twin), weaning weight), live weight, fleece growth and visual fleece attributes were recorded. A restricted maximum likelihood (REML) model was developed to relate clean fleece weight with age, MFD, average fleece-free live weight, lifetime characteristics and visual fleece attributes. There were separate linear responses of clean fleece weight to MFD and staple length for each age group, a quadratic response to the square root of average fleece-free live weight, an effect of sire breed and linear responses to dam age, staple definition score and character. Depending on age at shearing, the increase in clean fleece weight was between about 50 and 80. g for each increase of 1. μm in MFD. At similar MFD, clean fleece weight was generally greater at summer shearings compared with winter shearings. There was a strong increase in clean fleece weight with average fleece-free live weight up to around 50. kg but little response in clean fleece weight for animals larger than 50. kg. There was some evidence of a smaller increase in clean fleece weight as the age of dam increased. There was an effect of Breed in the model but this effect disappeared when a random sire effect was included in the model. There was a positive response to staple length at some age groups but the response did not differ from zero in other age groups. This response varied from negligible to about 70. g per 1. cm increase in staple length. Clean fleece weight increased about 40. g per unit increase in staple definition score and increased about 30. g for every 4 units increase in the number of staple crimps. There was no evidence that clean fleece weight was affected by staple style, staple tip score or staple entanglement score or lifetime factors such as birth weight, date of birth, birth parity, or weaning weight. The results show that using a combination of measuring MFD and visually assessing the fleece for staple length, staple definition and crimps can help identify the most profitable Angora goats. In this process, the objective measurement of MFD appears essential. Visual assessment will provide some extra benefit in identifying these animals above that provided by measuring MFD alone. Animal size should be considered by mohair producers when identifying more productive mohair producing animals. © 2014 Elsevier B.V.

Lifetime and fleece quality traits associated with the occurrence of entangled mohair staples

Staple entanglement in mohair fleeces occurs when adhesions form between longer and faster growing fibres and shorter and slower growing fibres. This results in accentuated crimp of the longer fibres and an "apparently" reduced staple length. The appearance in the fleece of Angora goats of staple entanglements can lead to the downgrading of the mohair to poorer style and shorter length grades, resulting in up to 60% price reductions. This study examined how staple entanglement score (SES) is related to lifetime factors of Angora goats, and how this relationship can be explained by variations in animal size and fleece attributes. SES was scored using a five-point scale: 5, long free fibres easily separated as no adhesions; 4, some adhesions between fibres; 3, some effort to separate fibres as many adhesions; 2, many adhesions, staple fibres entangled, shortening of staple; 1, very entangled and shortened staple. Measurements were made over 9 shearing periods on a population of Angora castrated males (wethers) goats representing the current range and diversity of genetic origins in Australia, including South African, Texan and interbred admixtures of these and Australian sources. Data on genetic origin, sire, dam, date of birth, dam age, birth weight, birth parity, weaning weight, live weight, fleece growth and fleece attributes were recorded. Two restricted maximum likelihood (REML) models were developed to relate SES with age, animal lifetime factors, fleece quality attributes and live weight. One model allowed fleece quality and live weight traits in the model and the other excluded these traits. Staple entanglement was almost eliminated in mohair harvested from goats shorn every 3. months but was common in mohair from goats shorn twice or once per year. SES was less in goats of Texan genetic background, and was generally less in winter grown mohair. SES was higher for mohair with low fibre curvature (FC, 10°/mm) and a high clean washing yield (CWY, 90%) compared with mohair with low FC and lower CWY (80%), and compared with all mohair with high FC (18°/mm). The response of SES to shearing regime, genetic background, shearing season, age of goat and a response to dam age were almost identical whether or not an adjustment was made for CWY and FC. There was a moderate amount of variability due to sires and individuals. We can conclude that a large part of these effects observed, namely breed, dam age, sire, and a component of the FC and CWY effects, are genetic. Mohair producers can manage the genetic effects by careful selection of sires, especially avoiding those with low CWY or high FC, and avoiding sires with higher levels of staple entanglement or that have produced progeny with higher levels of staple entanglement. Also, unidentified environmental effects are affecting staple entanglement, although a lack of a live weight change effect on entanglement indicates that this effect might not be due to nutrition. © 2013 Elsevier B.V.