Validation of a FFQ to estimate the intake of PUFA using plasma phospholipid fatty acids and weighed foods records

Due to the growing knowledge about the role of specific fatty acids in health and disease, dietary intake measurements of individual fatty acids or classes of fatty acids are becoming increasingly important. The objective of this study was to evaluate the ability of the Nambour FFQ to estimate intakes of specific fatty acids, particularly PUFA. The study population was a sub-sample of adult participants in a randomised controlled trial of [beta]-carotene and sunscreen in the prevention of skin cancer (n 43). Dietary intake was assessed by a self-administered FFQ and a weighed food record (WFR). Non-fasting blood samples were collected and analysed for plasma phospholipid fatty acids. Median intakes on the FFQ were generally higher than the WFR except for the n-3 PUFA groups, where the FFQ estimated higher intakes. Correlations between the FFQ and WFR were moderate (r 0–32-0-59) except for trans fatty acids (r 0–03). Correlations between each of the dietary assessment methods and the plasma phospholipids were poor for all fatty acids other than the PUFA. Using the methods of triads approach, the FFQ validity coefficients for total n-3 fatty acids, total long chain n-3 fatty acids, EPA, arachidonic acid, docosapentaenoic acid and DHA were 0–50, 0–63, 0–45 and 0–62 and 0–62, respectively. For most fatty acids, the FFQ adequately estimates group mean fatty acid intakes and can adequately rank individuals; however, the ability of this FFQ to estimate trans fatty acids was poor.

Measuring food access in Melbourne: access to healthy and fast foods by car, bus and foot in an urban municipality in Melbourne

Access to healthy food can be an important determinant of a healthy diet. This paper describes the assessment of access to healthy and unhealthy foods using a GIS accessibility programme in a large outer municipality of Melbourne. Access to a major supermarket was used as a proxy for access to a healthy diet and fast food outlet as proxy for access to unhealthy food. Our results indicated that most (>80%) residents lived within an 8–10 min car journey of a major supermarket i.e. have good access to a healthy diet. However, more advantaged areas had closer access to supermarkets, conversely less advantaged areas had closer access to fast food outlets. These findings have application for urban planners, public health practitioners and policy makers.

Association of key foods and beverages with obesity in Australian schoolchildren

Objective: To examine the pattern of intake of key foods and beverages of children aged 4–12 years and the association with weight status.
Design and setting: A computer-assisted telephone interview was used to determine the intake of fruit, vegetables, packaged snacks, fast foods and sweetened drinks ‘yesterday’ and ‘usually’ as reported by parents/guardians of a representative sample of 2184 children from the Barwon South-Western region of Victoria, Australia.
Results: Children who consumed .2–3, .3–4 and .4 servings of fruit juice/drinks ‘yesterday’ were, respectively, 1.7 (95% confidence interval (CI) 1.2–2.2), 1.7 (95% CI 1.2–2.5) and 2.1 (95% CI 1.5–2.9) times more likely to be overweight/obese compared with those who had no servings of fruit juice/drink ‘yesterday’, adjusted for age, gender and socio-economic status (SES). Further, children who had $3 servings
of soft drink ‘yesterday’ were 2.2 (95% CI 1.3–3.9) times more likely to be
overweight/obese compared with those who had no servings of soft drink ‘yesterday’, adjusted for age, gender and SES. In addition, children who ‘usually’ drank fruit juice/drinks twice or more per day were 1.7 (95% CI 1.2–2.4) times more likely to be overweight/obese compared with those who drank these beverages once or less per week, adjusted for age, gender and SES. Although fast foods and packaged snacks were regularly eaten, there were no associations between weight status and
consumption of these foods.
Conclusions: Intake of sweetened beverages was associated with overweight and obesity in this population of Australian schoolchildren and should be a target for intervention programmes aimed at preventing unhealthy weight gain in children.

Is the link between nutrients and foods understood? The case of fibre and folate

Objectives: To assess and contrast awareness of the link between dietary fibre and folate and their major food sources (fruit, vegetables, bread and cereals).

Design and setting: Mailed questionnaire investigating changes made to dietary intake of fibre, folate, fruit, vegetables, bread and cereals in the previous six months.

Setting: The survey was conducted between June and November 1998 in the Australian Capital Territory.

Subjects: One thousand one hundred and twenty-six adults randomly selected from the electoral roll.

Results: More women than men in both older (50 + years) and younger (18–49 years) age groups reported increasing their consumption of folate, fibre, fruit and vegetables in the prior six months. In contrast, more men than women reported increased consumption of bread, cereals, rice and pasta in the previous six months. For food categories and fibre, less than 4% of respondents were unsure about changes in these food habits. However, 26% of men and women were ‘not sure’ about changes to folate intake. Similar proportions of men and women (about 33%) reported consuming more fruit, vegetables or cereal-based foods over the prior six months, yet only 6% of these men and 14% of these women reported consuming more folate. In contrast, 44% of men and 51% of women who reported consuming more plant foods also reported consuming more dietary fibre.

Conclusions: The results suggested that subjects, particularly the younger age group, had a poor understanding of the relationship between folate intake and its major food sources. The understanding of the relationship between fibre intake and its food sources appeared substantial, but confusion about specific food sources was still evident. These outcomes question the effectiveness of nutrition education used to date, particularly for the current priority of increasing folate intake in younger women in the new, ‘health claims’ environment.

Consumption of 'extra' foods (energy-dense, nutrient poor) among children aged 16-24 months from western Sydney, Australia

Objective: This study evaluates the contribution of energy-dense, nutrient-poor ‘extra’ foods to the diets of 16–24-month-old children from western Sydney, Australia.

Design:   An analysis of cross-sectional data collected on participants in the Childhood Asthma Prevention Study (CAPS), a randomised trial investigating the primary prevention of asthma from birth to 5 years. We collected 3-day weighed food records, calculated nutrient intakes, classified recorded foods into major food groups, and further classified foods as either ‘core’ or ‘extras’ according to the Australian Guide to Healthy Eating.

Setting:  Pregnant women, whose unborn child was at risk of developing asthma because of a family history, were recruited from all six hospitals in western Sydney, Australia. Data for this study were collected in clinic visits and at participants’ homes at the 18-month assessment.

Participants: Four hundred and twenty-nine children participating in the CAPS study; 80% of the total cohort.

Results:  The mean consumption of ‘extra’ foods was xs223C150 g day− 1 and contributed 25–30% of the total energy, fat, carbohydrate and sodium to the diets of the study children. ‘Extra’ foods also contributed around 20% of fibre, 10% of protein and zinc, and about 5% of calcium. Children in the highest quintile of ‘extra’ foods intake had a slightly higher but not significantly different intake of energy from those in the lowest quintile. However, significant differences were evident for the percentage of energy provided by carbohydrate and sugars (higher) and protein and saturated fat (lower). The intake of most micronutrients was also significantly lower among children in the highest quintile of consumption. The intake of ‘extra’ foods was inversely associated with the intake of core foods.

Conclusions:  The high percentage of energy contributed by ‘extra’ foods and their negative association with nutrient density emphasise the need for dietary guidance for parents of children aged 1–2 years. These preliminary data on commonly consumed ‘extra’ foods and portion sizes may inform age-specific dietary assessment methods.

A provisional database for the silicon content of foods in the United Kingdom

Si may play an important role in bone formation and connective tissue metabolism. Although biological interest in this element has recently increased, limited literature exists on the Si content of foods. To further our knowledge and understanding of the relationship between dietary Si and human health, a reliable food composition database, relevant for the UK population, is required. A total of 207 foods and beverages, commonly consumed in the UK, were analysed for Si content. Composite samples were analysed using inductively coupled plasma–optical emission spectrometry following microwave-assisted digestion with nitric acid and H2O2. The highest concentrations of Si were found in cereals and cereal products, especially less refined cereals and oat-based products. Fruit and vegetables were highly variable sources of Si with substantial amounts present in Kenyan beans, French beans, runner beans, spinach, dried fruit, bananas and red lentils, but undetectable amounts in tomatoes, oranges and onions. Of the beverages, beer, a macerated whole-grain cereal product, contained the greatest level of Si, whilst drinking water was a variable source with some mineral waters relatively high in Si. The present study provides a provisional database for the Si content of UK foods, which will allow the estimation of dietary intakes of Si in the UK population and investigation into the role of dietary Si in human health.

Access to a healthy diet and fast foods in the City of Casey

It is known that the consumption of fast food is associated with obesity (Binkley 2000). Relative ease of access to fast foods compared with healthy foods may contribute to the increasing prevalence of obesity. The aim of this study was to determine and compare the access by car to fast foods and a healthy diet. The study was located in the City of Casey, a municipality in South East Melbourne with a population of 220,000. We have previously shown that ease of access to a large chain supermarket ensures access to a basket of healthy foods adequate to meet the nutritional needs of a family of 6 (Burns 2004). The City of Casey council provided location details for major fast food outlets and supermarkets. Fast food was defined as food sourced from an outlet without table service. We included only those major fast food chain outlets which had more than 10 franchises within Australia. We included the 3 major supermarket chains that account for 87% total food retailing in Victoria. Geographic details from the City of Casey were used to map the location of these outlets. Then using these locations and road network a basic cost distance model was created for either the supermarket chains or fast food chains outlets. The cost unit is (time), it was to calculate by giving the roads in the network an average travel speed depending in the type of road (minor, major or highway) and then calculating how long it would take to reach the closest outlet. Access to supermarket and fast food outlets were determined relative to population density.
Our results indicate that in the City of Casey most (> 80%) people live within an 8-10 minute car journey of a major supermarket and a fast food outlet. Fifty percent of the fast food outlets are co-located with a supermarket. We conclude that access to both healthy food and fast food in the City of Casey is good if you own a car. The increasing demand for fast food is easily met in this municipality. Obesity prevention strategies in Casey should concentrate on the food choices available at fast food outlets and town planning to ensure a mix of food outlets to maximize the likelihood of healthy food choices.

Sydney principles for reducing the commercial promotion of foods and beverages to children

A set of seven principles (the ‘Sydney Principles’) was developed by an International Obesity Taskforce (IOTF) Working Group to guide action on changing food and beverage marketing practices that target children. The aim of the present communication is to present the Sydney Principles and report on feedback received from a global consultation (November 2006 to April 2007) on the Principles.

The Principles state that actions to reduce marketing to children should: (i) support the rights of children; (ii) afford substantial protection to children; (iii) be statutory in nature; (iv) take a wide definition of commercial promotions; (v) guarantee commercial-free childhood settings; (vi) include cross-border media; and (vii) be evaluated, monitored and enforced.

The draft principles were widely disseminated and 220 responses were received from professional and scientific associations, consumer bodies, industry bodies, health professionals and others. There was virtually universal agreement on the need to have a set of principles to guide action in this contentious area of marketing to children. Apart from industry opposition to the third principle calling for a statutory approach and several comments about the implementation challenges, there was strong support for each of the Sydney Principles. Feedback on two specific issues of contention related to the age range to which restrictions should apply (most nominating age 16 or 18 years) and the types of products to be included (31 % nominating all products, 24 % all food and beverages, and 45 % energy-dense, nutrient-poor foods and beverages).

The Sydney Principles, which took a children’s rights-based approach, should be used to benchmark action to reduce marketing to children. The age definition for a child and the types of products which should have marketing restrictions may better suit a risk-based approach at this stage. The Sydney Principles should guide the formation of an International Code on Food and Beverage Marketing to Children.

Longitudinal study of Consumer Price Index (CPI) trends in core and non-core foods in Australia

Objective: This study examined trends in the price of healthy and less-healthy foods from 1989 to 2007 using the Australian Consumer Price Index (CPI).

Methods: CPI food expenditure classes were classified as 'core' or 'non-core'. Trends in the CPI were analysed to examine the rise in prices of core compared with non-core foods.

Results: On average, the CPI for core foods has risen at a slightly higher, though not statistically significant, rate than non-core foods. Furthermore, selected groupings reveal interesting patterns. 'Bread' has risen in price significantly more than 'cakes and biscuits', and 'milk' has risen in price significantly more than 'soft drinks, waters and juices'.

Conclusions and implications: This investigation of food price trends reveals notable differences between core and non-core foods. This should be investigated further to determine the extent to which this contributes to the higher prevalence of diet-related diseases in low socio-economic groups.

Determination of trans fatty acid levels by FTIR in processed foods in Australia

Health authorities around the world advise ‘limiting consumption of trans   fatty acids’, however in Australia the trans fatty acid (TFA) content is not  required to be listed in the nutrition information panel unless a declaration or nutrient claim is made about fatty acids or cholesterol. Since there is limited knowledge about trans fatty acid levels in processed foods available in Australia, this study aimed to determine the levels of TFA in selected food items known to be sources of TFA from previously published studies. Food items (n=92) that contain vegetable oil and a total fat content greater than 5% were included. This criterion was used in conjunction with a review of similar studies where food items were found to contain high levels of trans fatty acids. Lipids were extracted using solvents. Gravimetric methods were used to determine total fat content and trans fatty acid levels were quantified by Attenuated Total Reflectance Fourier Transform Infrared spectroscopy. High levels of trans fatty acids were found in certain items in the Australian food supply, with a high degree of variability. Of the samples analysed, 13  contained greater than 1 g of trans fatty acids per serving size, the highest value was 8.1 g/serving. Apart from when the nutrition information panel states that the content is less than a designated low level, food labels sold in Australia do not indicate trans fatty acid levels. We suggested that health authorities seek ways to assist consumers to limit their intakes of trans fatty acids.