The establishment of large private nature reserves by conservation NGOs : key factors for successful implementation

Private nature reserves created by nongovernmental organizations (NGOs) are increasing, and their growing number and extent means that they can potentially contribute to biodiversity goals at a global scale. However, the success of these reserves depends on the legal, economic and institutional conditions framing their creation and management. We explored these conditions, and the opportunities and challenges facing conservation organizations in managing private nature reserves, across several countries, with an emphasis on Australia. Results from 17 semi-structured interviews with representatives of private conservation organizations indicated that while private reserves may enhance the conservation estate, challenges remain. Legal frameworks, especially tenure and economic laws, vary across and within countries, presenting conservation organizations with significant opportunities or constraints to owning and/or managing private nature reserves. Many acquired land without strategic acquisition procedures and secured funding for property acquisition but not management, affecting the long-term maintenance of properties. Other typical problems were tied to the institutional capacity of the organizations. Greater planning within organizations, especially financial planning, is required and NGOs must understand opportunities and constraints present in legislative frameworks at the outset. Organizations must establish their expertise gaps and address them. To this end, partnerships between organizations and/or with government can prove critical.

Conservation of komodo dragons varanus komodoensis in the Wae Wuul nature reserve, Flores, Indonesia: a multidisciplinary approach

Multidisciplinary conservation initiatives are increasingly advocated as best practice for recovering endangered species. The Komodo dragon Varanus komodoensis is the world's largest lizard, of prominent conservation value as an umbrella species for protection of south-east Indonesian ecosystems. Komodo dragons have faced multiple human-related threat processes in the past 30 years and are listed on Appendix I of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora, and considered Vulnerable according to the International Union for Conservation of Nature Red List. We report on a protection programme conducted from 2005 to 2012 in the Wae Wuul nature reserve, on the island of Flores, Indonesia. The Wae Wuul ranger post was completely rebuilt, and community awareness and involvement of local people in habitat-protection schemes were regularly and successfully implemented. Local rangers were trained in wildlife-monitoring techniques. Monitoring results indicated that Komodo dragon densities were lower in Wae Wuul than in the adjacent Komodo National Park; however, a relatively high level of genetic diversity was recorded for this population. Ungulate prey showed a relatively stable prey population density. Community-based initiatives and regular wildlife monitoring are crucial to ensure the persistence of Komodo dragons on Flores. The Wae Wuul protection programme is providing several sustainability indicators by which informed management plans can be designed for long-term conservation of Komodo dragons.

The role and contribution of private land in Victoria to biodiversity conservation and the protected area system

The distribution and attributes of properties involved in three major programs for biodiversity protection on private land in Victoria, Australia, was investigated to determine their role in relation to the reserve system. Overlaying of dowsets in a geographic information system, with particular emphasis on property distribution in relation to bioregional and population centres, was undertaken. Land for Wildlife agreements had greater numbers of properties and total area protected in all bioregions throughout the State, yet average protected area sizes were lower than those of conservation covenants and Trust for Nature reserves. A combination of large bioregional area and human population size tended to attract more private conservation properties and, to a lesser extent, the total area they protected. The potential contribution that such properties made to biodiversity conservation varied between bioregions. Inclusion of properties within a national reserve framework is proposed to improve the coordination and effectiveness of conservation measures.

Dien Bien Phu: development and conservation in a Vietnamese cultural landscape

It has been possible to nominate places for their cultural landscape values to the World Heritage List since December 1992. The Operational Guidelines (2005) define cultural landscapes as cultural properties that ‘represent the “combined works of nature and man” designated in Article 1 of the Convention’. They are illustrative of the evolution of human society and settlement over time, under the influence of the physical constraints and/or opportunities presented by their natural environment and of successive social, economic and cultural forces, both internal and external’ (Para 47). Refining this further, the World Heritage system recognises three categories of cultural landscapes:

1. Clearly defined landscapes designed and intentionally created by man;

2. Organically evolved landscapes of two subtypes:
·  Relict or fossil landscapes in which an evolutionary process has come to an end but where its distinguishing features are still visible;
·  Continuing landscapes which retain an active social role in contemporary society associated with a traditional way of life and in which the evolutionary process is still in progress and where it exhibits significant material evidence of its evolution over time;

3. Associative cultural landscapes where the outstanding universal value relates to the powerful religious, artistic, or cultural associations of the natural elements rather than the evidence of material culture.

Community-based sustainability: conservation in the Ballarat region

The discourse of sustainability is promoted internationally, with the United Nations declaring 2005-2014 as a Decade for Education for Sustainable Development. There is discussion concerning the nature, status and significance of Education for Sustainability and its relationship with the somewhat established discourse of environmental education. This debate requires continuing theorising and one approach is to reflect critically on specific examples of sustainability within specific communities. This article seeks to promote further discussion about sustainability, and to contribute to ongoing theorisation about Education for Sustainability, by considering a particular instance – that of environmental sustainability in the Ballarat region of Victoria. The case study suggests that implementation of this local environmental sustainability strategy was dominated by technocratic and individualistic ideologies.

Price and subsidy policy on soil conservation: application to smallholder tea growers

The role of commodity prices and subsidies on the adoption of soil conservation has been widely debated yet is poorly understood. One reason for this is the complex nature of the relationship between soil loss and yield damage. This paper examines the effects of price and subsidy policy on adoption of soil conservation measures in tea lands in Sri Lanka. The soil conservation technologies considered are lateral drains, stone terraces and Sloping Agricultural Land Technique (SALT). The study uses a non-linear yield damage function to estimate tea yield loss due to soil erosion. The yield function is then used in conjunction with a simple analytical model to examine the effects of changes in price and subsidies
on the incentives to adopt various soil conservation technologies. When there is a yield increment with soil conservation, increases in both prices and subsidies are found to make soil conservation economically attractive.

Conservation of the endemic dwarf carnivores of Cozumel Island, Mexico.

Cozumel Island, Mexico, harbours two endemic species of dwarf procyonids: the Pygmy Raccoon Procyon pygmaeus and the Dwarf Coati Nasua nelsoni. Both species are Critically Endangered, and are among the world’s most threatened Carnivora. Here we summarise the research we have been conducting on their ecology, evolution, genetics, and conservation. We also summarise the conservation initiatives we have been undertaking and promoting in order to advance the conservation of these unique species and their habitats. This effort illustrates the importance of an interdisciplinary approach in conservation science and action in maximising effectiveness. Nevertheless, the precarious status of the species make it imperative to continue and expand the work we have carried out in Cozumel to prevent two imminent global extinctions.

Fire management on private conservation lands : knowledge, perceptions and actions of landholders in eastern Australia

Fire is an important natural disturbance process within the Australian landscape, but the complex and hazardous nature of fire creates a conservation management dilemma. For landholders of private conservation lands, management for conservation of biodiversity and risk reduction is complicated. Private conservation landholders in eastern Australia directed far less effort towards fire management than other conservation management actions, despite clearly acknowledging the risk and associated responsibilities of fire management on their lands. Nonetheless, landholders did undertake actions to reduce fuel hazards and prepare for wildfire events on their land. Despite the established role and benefits of fire to many ecosystems in the region, landholder understanding of the ecological role of fire was generally poor. Few landholders were aware of ecologically appropriate fire regimes for the vegetation types on their property, and few undertook fire management actions to achieve ecological outcomes. Site-specific obstacles, lack of fire management knowledge and experience, and legal and containment concerns contributed to the low level of fire management observed. There is a need for property-specific fire management planning across all private conservation lands, to further integrate ecological fire requirements into biodiversity management, and prioritise actions that aim to improve conservation outcomes while safeguarding life and property.

Creative conservation and Balinese traditional landscape : scenarios for eco city concepts and culturally sensitive tourism development

Bali is internationally recognized as an island possessing a beautiful natural landscape as well as a unique culture. The natural qualities of its mountains, lakes, rivers, rice terrace fields with subak irrigation make Bali an important tourism destination. Cultural Tourism is integral in Bali’s tourism industry providing the basic capital for development1. The social condition of this society that is strongly characterized by religious beliefs, and its nature and ecology also supports this. The conservation and maintenance of this traditional landscape is often forgotten because of government agendas to implement cultural city programs aimed at encouraging tourism development. Despite this, the government is now supporting the program of ‘Bali toward Garden Island’, which aims to sustain the physical and cultural environment of the island towards conservation of its landscape. The implementation of this program includes attention to universal, societal and cultural values as unity indicators, of which the landscape planning of the Balinese characteristics and traditions cannot be separated. Landscape planning is integral in this initiative of character defining the region.

Globalisation is increasingly becoming one of the most important discussions amongst the Balinese people. It has become a national concern about the changes implicating Bali’s environment. Urbanisation, population growth, ribbon development, migration and consumption of energy are important imperatives and necessary evils for growing cities. These imperatives are creating the sprawl of building planning, development information, loss of open spaces, as well as the decline of the identity of cities. Places such as Denpasar City are struggling with increasing population at a rate of 1.94% per year that is causing increase in housing and public facilities demanded by both residents and ex-patriates. Thus land associated with the city has been lost to the rapid development of this cultural landscape.

This paper examines the Balinese traditional landscape and its role in encouraging tourism development that based on the Balinese culture and its ecology. The paper focuses on the planning of city landscape appearance characteristics and seeks to test and adopt the terms ‘creative conservation’ and ‘eco city concept’. By conserving the most important philosophy of the Balinese Tri Hita Karana Concept will better inform all aspects of city development in Bali. This study seeks to offer guidance for the legitimate use of landscape planning especially for city development in Bali.

Subjective risk assessment for planning conservation projects

Conservation projects occur under many types of uncertainty. Where this uncertainty can affect achievement of a project's objectives, there is risk. Understanding risks to project success should influence a range of strategic and tactical decisions in conservation, and yet, formal risk assessment rarely features in the guidance or practice of conservation planning. We describe how subjective risk analysis tools can be framed to facilitate the rapid identification and assessment of risks to conservation projects, and how this information should influence conservation planning. Our approach is illustrated with an assessment of risks to conservation success as part of a conservation plan for the work of The Nature Conservancy in northern Australia. Risks can be both internal and external to a project, and occur across environmental, social, economic and political systems. Based on the relative importance of a risk and the level of certainty in its assessment we propose a series of appropriate, project level responses including research, monitoring, and active amelioration. Explicit identification, prioritization, and where possible, management of risks are important elements of using conservation resources in an informed and accountable manner