Formation of nanoscale titanium carbides in ferrite: an atomic study

The formation and evolution of nanoscale titanium carbide in ferrite during the early isothermal annealing process were investigated via molecular dynamics simulation. The atomic interactions of titanium and carbon atoms during the initial formation process explained the atoms aggregation and carbides formation. It was found that the aggregation and dissociation of titanium carbide occurred simultaneously, and the composition of carbide clusters varied in a wide range. A mechanism for the formation of titanium carbide clusters in ferrite was disclosed.

The role of thermomechanical routes on the distribution of grain boundary and interface plane orientations in transformed microstructures

In the current study, a series of thermomechanical routes were used to produce different microstructures (i.e., ferrite and martensite) in low-carbon low alloy steels. The five-parameter grain boundary character distribution was measured for all microstructures. The thermomechanical processing route altered the texture of the fully ferritic microstructure and significantly influenced the anisotropy of the grain boundary character distribution. Generally, the population of (111) planes increased with an increase in the γ-fiber texture for the ferritic microstructure, but it did not change the shape of the grain boundary plane distribution at specific misorientations. The most commonly observed boundaries in the fully ferritic structures produced through different routes were {112} symmetric tilt boundaries with the Σ3 = 60 deg/[111] misorientation; this boundary also had a low energy. However, the grain boundary plane distribution was significantly changed by the phase transformation path (i.e., ferrite vs martensite) for a given misorientation. In the martensitic steel, the most populous Σ3 boundary was the {110} symmetric tilt boundary. This results from the crystallographic constraints associated with the shear transformation (i.e., martensite) rather than the low-energy interface that dominates in the diffusional phase transformation (i.e., ferrite).

Improvement of accuracy in a free bending test for material characterization

The effect of secondary (anticlastic) curvature and the stress state on the measurement of material properties in a free bending test is studied in order to improve the accuracy of the test. Experiments and numerical analysis are conducted on a medium strength 304L stainless steel and high strength dual-phase steels, DP780 and DP1000. The dependence of the secondary curvature on sample geometry is analysed and correction factors are introduced to improve the accuracy of the calculation of material properties when using plane strain or uniaxial stress two-dimensional assumptions. A free bending test procedure is proposed to characterize material behaviour close to yield. This will allow the quick and simple analysis of material properties for bending-dominated forming processes such as roll forming.

In situ synchrotron X-ray diffraction studies of the effect of microstructure on tensile behavior and retained austenite stability of thermo-mechanically processed transformation induced plasticity steel

Transmission electron microscopy and in situ synchrotron high-energy X-ray diffraction were used to investigate the martensitic transformation and lattice strains under uniaxial tensile loading of Fe-Mn-Si-C-Nb-Mo-Al Transformation Induced Plasticity (TRIP) steel subjected to different thermo-mechanical processing schedules. In contrast with most of the diffraction analysis of TRIP steels reported previously, the diffraction peaks from the martensite phase were separated from the peaks of the ferrite-bainite α-matrix. The volume fraction of retained γ-austenite, as well as the lattice strain, were determined from the diffraction patterns recorded during tensile deformation. Although significant austenite to martensite transformation starts around the macroscopic yield stress, some austenite grains had already experienced martensitic transformation. Hooke's Law was used to calculate the phase stress of each phase from their lattice strain. The ferrite-bainite α-matrix was observed to yield earlier than austenite and martensite. The discrepancy between integrated phase stresses and experimental macroscopic stress is about 300 MPa. A small increase in carbon concentration in retained austenite at the early stage of deformation was detected, but with further straining a continuous slight decrease in carbon content occurred, indicating that mechanical stability factors, such as grain size, morphology and orientation of the retained austenite, played an important role during the retained austenite to martensite transformation.

A modified approach to modeling of diffusive transformation kinetics from nonisothermal data and experimental verification

An inverse model is proposed to construct the mathematical relationship between continuous cooling transformation (CCT) kinetics with constant rates and the isothermal one. The kinetic parameters in JMAK equations of isothermal kinetics can be deduced from the experimental CCT kinetics. Furthermore, a generalized model with a new additive rule is developed for predicting the kinetics of nucleation and growth during diffusional phase transformation with arbitrary cooling paths based only on CCT curve. A generalized contribution coefficient is introduced into the new additivity rule to describe the influences of current temperature and cooling rate on the incubation time of nuclei. Finally, then the reliability of the proposed model is validated using dilatometry experiments of a microalloy steel with fully bainitic microstructure based on various cooling routes.

Effect of coiling treatment on microstructural development and precipitate strengthening of a strip cast steel

The effect of a simulated coiling treatment on a strip cast Nb-containing steel has been investigated. A lath ferritic supersaturated microstructure was observed in the as-cast condition with no coiling. The microstructure remained lath like during coiling at high temperature (850 °C) and the formation of chemically complex Nb-rich precipitates containing C, N, Si and S was observed. Coiling at an intermediate temperature (700 °C) caused the formation of polygonal ferrite with a dendritic morphology due to chemical micro-segregation. The polygonal ferrite contained Nb(C,N) precipitates. The microstructure remained lath like at the lowest coiling temperature (600 °C). In the latter case the precipitation of Nb-rich clusters was observed, and atom probe tomography revealed them to be ∼85% Fe. Small angle neutron scattering and transmission electron microscopy were used to quantify precipitation kinetics during coiling and the mechanical properties were evaluated with a shear punch apparatus. A yield strength model was developed to describe the observed mechanical behaviour, and this showed that the two largest contributors to strength were the bainitic microstructure and the Nb-rich precipitates. Strategies to further strengthen these materials are suggested.

Vanadium microalloying for ultra-high strength steel sheet treated by hot-dip metallising

Ultra-high strength steel sheets have been subjected to heat treatments that simulate the thermal cycles in hot-dip galvanising and galvannealing processes and evaluated with respect to their resulting mechanical properties and microstructures. The steels contained suitable contents of carbon (∼0.2%), manganese (1.2%) and chromium (0.4%) to ensure that they could be fully transformed to martensite after austenitisation followed by rapid cooling in a continuous annealing line, prior to galvanising. Different contents of vanadium (0–0.1%) and nitrogen (0.002–0.012%) were used to investigate the possible role of these microalloying elements on the strength of the tempered martensite. Vanadium, especially when in combination with a raised nitrogen content, helps to resist the effect of tempering so that a larger proportion of the initial strengthening is preserved after the galvanising cycle, giving tensile strength levels exceeding 1000 MPa. Different deoxidation practices using aluminium or silicon have also been included. These showed similar strength levels at corresponding carbon contents but the bendability of the Si-killed steel sheet was considerably superior. Microstructural examinations have been made on the annealed steels but the reason for the beneficial effect of vanadium is still not fully explained. It is concluded that microalloying with vanadium is a very promising approach in the development of corrosion-resistant ultra-high strength steel sheet products.

A manufacturing process using the infrared ray local heating method for seat cross members

Recent studies have shown that the infrared (IR) local heating method drastically reduces springback of advanced high-strength steels (AHSSs). Though the IR local heating method saves heating energy because it utilizes focused IR rays to heat only the plastic deformation zone, there has yet to be an attempt to show that the heating method can be applied to industrial manufacturing processes. In this work, the IR local heating method is used to manufacture a seat cross member. Seat cross members require high strength because they are responsible for protecting passengers from broadside collisions. Although AHSS is preferred in seat cross members, the large amount of springback of AHSS makes a problem in the accuracy of the shape. This work verifies that the IR local heating method is able to make the seat cross member with the target shape in the manufacturing process. A thermo-mechanical analysis was also conducted with the finite element method to discuss the springback results.

Dry sliding wear of active screen plasma carburised austenitic stainless steel

Low temperature diffusion treatments with nitrogen and carbon have been widely used to increase the tribological performance of austenitic stainless steels. These processes produce a layer of supersaturated austenite, usually called expanded austenite or S-phase, which exhibits good corrosion and wear resistance. The novel active screen technology is said to provide benefits over the conventional DC plasma technology. The improvements result from the reduction in the electric potential applied to the treated components, and the elimination of such defects and processing instabilities as edge effects, hollow cathode effects and arcing. In this study, AISI 316 coupon samples were plasma carburised in DC and active screen plasma furnaces. The respective layers of carbon expanded austenite were characterised and their tribological performance was studied and compared. Detailed post-test examinations included SEM observations of the wear tracks and of the wear debris, EDX mapping of the wear track, EBSD crystal orientation mapping of the cross sections of the wear tracks, and cross-sectional TEM. Based on the results of wear tests and post-test examinations, the wear mechanisms involved are discussed.

EBSD and AFM observations of the microstructural changes induced by low temperature plasma carburising on AISI 316

Low temperature plasma carburising (LTPC) has been increasingly accepted as a hardening process for austenitic stainless steels because it produces a good combination of tribological and corrosion properties. The hardening mechanism is based on the supersaturation of the austenitic structure with carbon, which greatly hardens the material, significantly expands the fcc unit cell, produces high levels of compressive residual stresses and, ultimately, leads to the occurrence of deformation bands and rotation of the crystal lattice. The microstructural changes introduced during plasma carburising have a significant impact on the mechanical, tribological and corrosion performance and, for this reason, the microstructure of expanded austenite or S-phase has been extensively studied. However, modern surface characterisation techniques could provide new insights into the formation mechanism of S-phase layers. In this work, backscattered electron diffraction and atomic force microscopy were used to characterise the surface layers of expanded austenite produced by LTPC in an active screen furnace. Based on the experimental results, the plastic deformation, its dependence on crystallographic orientation, the evolution of grain boundaries, and their effects on mechanical, tribological and corrosion properties are discussed. © 2011 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.