Planning helps : the impact of release planning on subsequent re-entry experiences of child sex offenders

Recent research has demonstrated that poor release planning is associated with sex offender recidivism; however, whether release planning correlates with actual re-entry experiences has not been investigated systematically. Accordingly, in the present study release planning was rated for 16 child sex offenders, and semi-structured interviews about re-entry experiences were conducted at one, three and six months following their release from prison. As expected, significant positive correlations were found between release planning and re-entry experiences across the follow-up period, indicating that higher-quality release planning is associated with more positive re-entry experiences. Accordingly, it can be assumed that re-entry experiences differ between recidivists and non-recidivists, and hence positive re-entry experiences contribute to a reduction in sex offender recidivism. The implications for the management of offender release, policy makers and society as a whole are discussed.

Assessment of community reintegration planning for sex offenders

Poor planning for reintegrating child molesters from prison to the community is a likely risk factor for sexual recidivism. The quality of reintegration planning was retrospectively measured for groups of recidivist (n = 30) and nonrecidivist (n = 30) child molesters who were individually matched on static risk level and time since release. Recidivists had significantly poorer reintegration planning scores than nonrecidivists, consistent with a previous study by the authors. Data from both studies were combined (total N = 141), and survival analyses showed that poor reintegration planning predicted an increased rate of recidivism. Accommodation, employment, and social support planning combined to predict recidivism, with predictive validity comparable to static risk models (area under the curve = .71). Summing these items yielded a scale of reintegration planning quality that differentiated well between recidivists and nonrecidivists and may have practical utility for risk assessment as an adjunct to static models.

Maternal stress to partner quality is linked to adaptive offspring sex ratio adjustment

Female birds have been shown to have a remarkable degree of control over the sex ratio of the offspring they produce. However, it remains poorly understood how these skews are achieved. Female condition, and consequent variation in circulating hormones, provides a plausible mechanistic link between offspring sex biases and the environmental and social stresses commonly invoked to explain adaptive sex allocation, such as diet, territory quality, and body condition. However, although experimental studies have shown that female perception of male phenotype alone can lead to sex ratio biases, it is unknown how partner quality influences female physiological state. Using a controlled within-female experimental design where female Gouldian finches (Erythrura gouldiae) bred with both high- and low-quality males, we found that partner quality directly affects female hormonal status and subsequent fitness. When constrained to breeding with low-quality males, females had highly elevated stress responses (corticosterone levels) and produced adaptive male-biased sex ratios, whereas when they bred with high-quality males, females had low corticosterone levels and produced an equal offspring sex ratio. There was no effect of other maternal hormones (e.g., testosterone) or body condition on offspring sex ratios. Female physiological condition during egg production, and variation in circulating hormones in particular, may provide a general mechanistic route for strategic sex allocation in birds.

The legal recognition of same-sex unions in Australia : a constitutional analysis

The Marriage Equality Amendment Bill 2010 (Cth) currently before federal Parliament amends the present legislative definition of marriage to include same-sex unions. This article provides a constitutional analysis of the scope of the marriage power, s 51(xxi) of the Australian Constitution , through examination of the Bill and other existing and proposed legislation. It argues that if the High Court considered "marriage" to be a constitutionalised legal term of art, it could accommodate post-federation development at common law and in statute to the institution of marriage. It also argues that the presumption in favour of constitutionality ought to be at its strongest with federal legislation determining complex and intractable moral issues. The article explores the constitutional vulnerability of current same-sex union legislation and possible future legislation providing for recognition of the functional equivalent of "marriage". In addition, the article considers the constitutional foundation of a national framework to provide official legal recognition of same-sex relationships.

Oral language competence in incarcerated young offenders : links with offending severity

Previous research in Australia and overseas has shown that young offenders serving community-based orders are at high-risk for undetected but clinically significant oral language difficulties. However, this phenomenon has received little attention in incarcerated samples, and links with offending severity, mental health, and other markers of early risk have not previously been systemically examined. A cross-sectional examination of 100 young offenders (mean age 19.03 years) completing custodial sentences in Victoria, Australia was conducted. A range of standardized oral language, IQ, mental health, and offending severity measures was employed. Forty-six per cent of participants were classified as language impaired (LI), and these were compared with the non-LI sub-group on background and offending variables. When the sub-group with high scores on a measure of offending severity was compared with those with (relatively) lower offending scores, significant differences on a range of language measures were identified. A range of early risk indicators (such as placement in Out of Home Care) was also examined with respect to language impairment in this high-risk group. Results are discussed with respect to policy and practice pertaining to early intervention for vulnerable children, and implications for service delivery within the justice system. In particular, emphasis is placed on the need to closely examine the oral language skills of children who struggle with the transition to literacy and then display behavioural difficulties in the classroom. Once a young person is engaged with youth justice services, a high index of suspicion should be maintained with respect to their oral language skills; for example, in relation to forensic interviewing and the ability to benefit from verbally mediated interventions.

Sex differences in achievement in year 12 mathematics and non-routine problem solving

In 1991 all Victorian year 12 students undertook the new Victorian Certificate of Education Mathematics Study designed by the Victorian Curriculum and Assessment Board. This paper presents the results of a study into sex difference in achievement in the new VCE Mathematics study in Victoria. An important goal of the study designers was to encourage more equal participation in senior secondary mathematics by females and males and to include assessment of mathematical skills previously not assessed in a year 12 course in Victoria. These new tasks could conceivably change the degree and direction of sex difference in achievement in senior secondary mathematics.

Absorbance of retinal oil droplets of the budgerigar : sex, spatial and plumage morph-related variation

Intraspecific variation in photoreceptor physiology is known in several vertebrate taxa, but is currently unknown in birds, despite many avian traits varying intraspecifically, and avian visual ecology encompassing a wide range of environments and visual stimuli, which might influence spectral sensitivity. Avian retinal photoreceptors contain light absorbing carotenoid-rich oil droplets that affect vision. Carotenoids are also important plumage components. However, our understanding of the regulation of carotenoids in oil droplets remains rudimentary. Among birds, Melopsittacus undulatus has probably the best-studied colour vision, shows profound intraspecific variation in plumage colour, and increased plasma carotenoids during moult. We used microspectrophotometry to determine whether a relationship exists between oil droplet carotenoid concentration and plumage pigmentation, and tested for sex and spatial variation in droplet absorbance across the retina. Absorbance of one variety of P-type droplets was higher in males. No relationship was found between droplet absorbance and plumage colour. We found a spatial pattern of droplets absorbance across the retina that matched a pattern found in another parrot, and other avian species. Our work provides insights into the development and maintenance of retinal oil droplets and suggests a common mechanism and function for carotenoid deposition in the retina across bird species.

Mothers adjust offspring sex to match the quality of the rearing environment

Theory predicts that mothers should adjust offspring sex ratios when the expected fitness gains or rearing costs differ between sons and daughters. Recent empirical work has linked biased offspring sex ratios to environmental quality via changes in relative maternal condition. It is unclear, however, whether females can manipulate offspring sex ratios in response to environmental quality alone (i.e. independent of maternal condition). We used a balanced within-female experimental design (i.e. females bred on both low- and high-quality diets) to show that female parrot finches (Erythrura trichroa) manipulate primary offspring sex ratios to the quality of the rearing environment, and not to their own body condition and health. Individual females produced an unbiased sex ratio on high-quality diets, but over-produced sons in poor dietary conditions, even though they maintained similar condition between diet treatments. Despite the lack of sexual size dimorphism, such sex ratio adjustment is in line with predictions from sex allocation theory because nutritionally stressed foster sons were healthier, grew faster and were more likely to survive than daughters. These findings suggest that mothers may adaptively adjust offspring sex ratios to optimally match their offspring to the expected quality of the rearing environment.

Sex reversal in Nile tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus Linnaeus) by androgen immersion

Two experiments were conducted to investigate the efficacy of three androgens applied through immersion treatments on the sex ratio of Nile tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus L.) fry. In experiment 1, 14 days post-hatching (DPH) larvae were exposed to a single immersion treatment in 17α-methyltestosterone (MT), 17α-methyldihydrotestosterone (MDHT) or 17α-ethynyltestosterone (ET) at 200, 600 and 1800 μg L⁻¹ over 4 h (130 larvae per treatment). In experiment 2, Nile tilapia larvae were exposed to the higher androgen concentration (1800 μg L⁻¹) applied as either a single immersion (14 DPH) or double immersion (10 and 14 DPH) over 4 h (125 larvae per treatment). Change in sex proportion within each experiment as well as between experiments was analysed by the chi-square test. In experiment 1, MT, MDHT and ET were equally effective in significantly increasing the proportion of males when applied at 1800 μg L⁻¹ (86.0%, 90.0% and 86.7% respectively). At 200 μg L⁻¹ none of the androgens altered sex ratio. At 600 μg L⁻¹, only MDHT slightly, but significantly skewed the sex ratio towards males (73.0%). In experiment 2, a single immersion treatment at 14 DPH (1800 μg L⁻¹) significantly increased the proportion of males, but at this time the response was significantly hormone dependent (MDHT, 100.0%; MT, 91.6%; ET, 76.9%). When compared with a single immersion, two-immersion treatments significantly increased the proportion of males in the MT-treated group (from 91.6% to 98.3%), decreased the proportion of males in the MDHT group (from 100.0% to 93.4%) and had no significant effect the ET-treated group (change from 76.9% to 82.5%). The overall comparison of the sex ratio among same treatments from different experiments (a single immersion in 1800 μg L⁻¹) was not significantly different.