The impact of two arable field margin management schemes on litter decomposition

A primary objective of agri-environment schemes is the conservation of biodiversity; in addition to increasing the value of farmland for wildlife, these schemes also aim to restore natural ecosystem functioning. The management of scheme options can influence their value for delivering ecosystem services by modifying the composition of floral and faunal communities. This study examines the impact of an agri-environment scheme prescription on ecosystem functioning by testing the hypothesis that vegetation management influences decomposition rates in grassy arable field margins. The effects of two vegetation management practices in arable field margins - cutting and soil disturbance (scarification) - on litter decomposition were compared using a litterbag experimental approach in early April 2006. Bags had either small mesh designed to restrict access to soil macrofauna, or large mesh that would allow macrofauna to enter. Bags were positioned on the soil surface or inserted into the soil in cut and scarified margins, retrieved after 44, 103 and 250 days and the amount of litter mass remaining was calculated. Litter loss from the litterbags with large mesh was greater than from the small mesh bags, providing evidence that soil macrofauna accelerate rates of litter decomposition. In the large mesh bags, the proportion of litter remaining in bags above and belowground in the cut plots was similar, while in the scarified plots, there was significantly more litter left in the aboveground bags than in the belowground bags. This loss of balance between decomposition rates above and belowground in scarified margins may have implications for the development and maintenance of grassy arable field margins by influencing nutrient availability for plant communities. (C) 2008 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Holm Oak (Quercus ilex L.) canopy as interceptor of airborne trace elements and their accumulation in the litter and topsoil

We investigated the role of urban Holm Oak (Quercus ilex L.) trees as airborne metal accumulators and metals' environmental fate. Analyses confirmed Pb, Cd, Cu and Zn as main contaminants in Siena's urban environment; only Pb concentrations decreased significantly compared to earlier surveys. Additionally, we determined chemical composition of tree leaves, litter and topsoil (underneath/outside tree crown) in urban and extra-urban oak stands. Most notably, litter in urban samples collected outside the canopy had significantly lower concentrations of organic matter and higher concentrations of Pb, Cu, Cd and Zn than litter collected underneath the canopy. There was a greater metals' accumulation in topsoil, in samples collected under the tree canopy and especially near the trunk ('stemflow area'). Thus, in urban ecosystems the Holm Oak stands likely increase the soil capability to bind metals.

Soil carbon and litter development along a reconstructed biodiverse forest chronosequence of South-Western Australia

Soil organic matter (SOM) increases with time as landscape is restored. Studying SOM development along restored forest chronosequences would be useful in clarifying some of the uncertainties in quantifying C turnover rates with respect to forest clearance and ensuing restoration. The development of soil organic matter in the mineral soils was studied at four depths in a 16-year-old restored jarrah forest chronosequence. The size-separated SOM fractionation along with δ13C isotopic shift was utilised to resolve the soil C temporal and spatial changes with developing vegetation. The restored forest chronosequence revealed several important insights into how soil C is developing with age. Litter accumulation outpaced the native forest levels in 12 years after restoration. The surface soils, in general, showed increase in total C with age, but this trend was not clearly observed at lower depths. C accumulation was observed with increasing restoration age in all three SOM size-fractions in the surface 0–2 cm depth. These biodiverse forests show a trend towards accumulating C in recalcitrant stable forms, but only in the surface 0–2 cm mineral soil. A significant reverse trend was observed for the moderately labile SOM fraction for lower depths with increasing restoration age. Correlating the soil δ13C with total C concentration revealed the re-establishment of the isotopically depleted labile to enriched refractory C continuum with soil depth for the older restored sites. This implied that from a pedogenic perspective, the restored soils are developing towards the original native soil carbon profile.

Liming upland grassland: the effects on earthworm communities and the chemical characteristics of carbon in casts

Different earthworm species have different tolerances of acid soil conditions, and the application of lime to upland grassland to improve the grazing quality may therefore alter the size and diversity of the earthworm community. Altering soil properties may also affect the chemical characteristics of organic C in earthworm casts. We surveyed the earthworm community of an upland grassland in southern Scotland at the outset of annual lime applications, and after 3 years, and used C-13 nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy to assess the distribution of C between different functional groups in the organic matter. In addition, soil was incubated for 8 weeks with several earthworm species in the presence or absence of lime, and the earthworm casts were subsequently analysed by C-13 NMR spectroscopy. Liming did not significantly affect earthworm abundance or species diversity, but it did affect the chemical composition of the casts. Casts from earthworms incubated in unlimed soil had greater ratios of alkyl-C to O-alkyl-C, indicative of more decomposed, recalcitrant C, and spectra from litter-feeding species had the greatest intensities of O-alkyl-C signals. In limed soil, the largest O-alkyl-C signal intensities were not restricted to litter-feeding species, indicating an increase in the quality of organic matter ingested by geophagous species.

Modeling the mechanisms that control in-stream dissolved organic carbon dynamics in upland and forested catchments

[1] We present a new, process-based model of soil and stream water dissolved organic carbon (DOC): the Integrated Catchments Model for Carbon (INCA-C). INCA-C is the first model of DOC cycling to explicitly include effects of different land cover types, hydrological flow paths, in-soil carbon biogeochemistry, and surface water processes on in-stream DOC concentrations. It can be calibrated using only routinely available monitoring data. INCA-C simulates daily DOC concentrations over a period of years to decades. Sources, sinks, and transformation of solid and dissolved organic carbon in peat and forest soils, wetlands, and streams as well as organic carbon mineralization in stream waters are modeled. INCA-C is designed to be applied to natural and seminatural forested and peat-dominated catchments in boreal and temperate regions. Simulations at two forested catchments showed that seasonal and interannual patterns of DOC concentration could be modeled using climate-related parameters alone. A sensitivity analysis showed that model predictions were dependent on the mass of organic carbon in the soil and that in-soil process rates were dependent on soil moisture status. Sensitive rate coefficients in the model included those for organic carbon sorption and desorption and DOC mineralization in the soil. The model was also sensitive to the amount of litter fall. Our results show the importance of climate variability in controlling surface water DOC concentrations and suggest the need for further research on the mechanisms controlling production and consumption of DOC in soils.

Phosphorus sorption and availability in soils amended with animal manures and sewage sludge

Soils that receive large applications of animal wastes and sewage sludge are vulnerable to releasing environmentally significant concentrations of dissolved P available to subsurface flow owing to the gradual saturation of the soil's P sorption capacity. This study evaluated P sorption (calculated from Langmuir isotherms) and availability of P (as CaCl2-P and resin P) in soils incubated for 20 d with poultry litter, poultry manure, cattle slurry, municipal sewage sludge, or KH2PO4, added on a P-equivalent basis (100 mg P kg(-1)). All the P sources had a marked negative effect on P sorption and a positive effect on P availability in all soils. In the cattle slurry- and KH2PO4- treated soils, the decreases in P sorption maximum (19-66%) and binding energy (25-89%) were consistently larger than the corresponding decreases (7-41% and 11-30%) in poultry litter-, poultry manure-, and sewage sludge-treated soils. The effects of cattle slurry and KH2PO4 on P availability were, in most cases, larger than those of the other P sources. In the poultry litter, poultry manure, and sewage sludge treatments, the increase in soil solution P was inversely related (R-2 = 0.75) to the input of Ca from these relatively high Ca (13.5-42 g kg(-1)) sources. Correlation analyses implied that the magnitude of the changes in P sorption and availability was not related to the water-extractable P content of the P sources. Future research on the sustainable application of organic wastes to agricultural soils needs to consider the non-P- as well as P-containing components of the waste.

Differences in phosphorus retention and release in soils amended with animal manures and sewage sludge

Excessive levels of P in agricultural soils pose a threat to local water quality. This study evaluated (i) time-dependent changes in soil P sorption (expressed as a phosphorus sorption index, PSI) and P availability (as resin P) during incubation (100 d) with poultry litter, cattle slurry, sewage sludge, or KH2PO4, added on a P-equivalent basis (100 mg P kg(-1)), and (ii) the subsequent kinetics of P release, measured by repeated extractions with a mixed cation-anion exchange resin. Soil exchangeable Ca and ammonium oxalate-extractable Fe and Al were also determined at 100 d of incubation. The small decrease in P sorption in the litter and sludge treatments (25%), compared with that in the slurry and KH2PO4 treatments (52%) between 20 and 100 d of incubation was attributed partly to the formation of new adsorption sites for P. Subsequent P release was described by a power equation: Resin P = a(extraction number)(b), where the constants a and b represent resin P obtained with a single extraction and the rate of P release per resin extraction, respectively. On average, the rate of P release decreased in the order: KH2PO4 and slurry > litter > sludge, and was inversely related to exchangeable Ca content of the incubated soils (R-2 = 0.57). The slower rates of P release in the litter and sludge treatments (P < 0.001) are attributed to the large values for exchangeable Ca (1050-2640 and 1070-2710 mg kg(-1), respectively) in these amended soils. Future research concerned with short-term declines in environmentally harmful levels of P in recently amended soils should consider the differential effects of the amendments on soil P dynamics.

A new Snow-SVAT to simulate the accumulation and ablation of seasonal snow cover beneath a forest canopy

A new snow-soil-vegetation-atmosphere transfer (Snow-SVAT) scheme, which simulates the accumulation and ablation of the snow cover beneath a forest canopy, is presented. The model was formulated by coupling a canopy optical and thermal radiation model to a physically-based multi-layer snow model. This canopy radiation model is physically-based yet requires few parameters, so can be used when extensive in-situ field measurements are not available. Other forest effects such as the reduction of wind speed, interception of snow on the canopy and the deposition of litter were incorporated within this combined model, SNOWCAN, which was tested with data taken as part of the Boreal Ecosystem-Atmosphere Study (BOREAS) international collaborative experiment. Snow depths beneath four different canopy types and at an open site were simulated. Agreement between observed and simulated snow depths was generally good, with correlation coefficients ranging between r^2=0.94 and r^2=0.98 for all sites where automatic measurements were available. However, the simulated date of total snowpack ablation generally occurred later than the observed date. A comparison between simulated solar radiation and limited measurements of sub-canopy radiation at one site indicates that the model simulates the sub-canopy downwelling solar radiation early in the season to within measurement uncertainty.

Effect of dietary supplementation of different oils during the first or second half of pregnancy on the glucose tolerance of the sow

Poor glucose tolerance may be an under-researched contributory factor in the high (10% to 20%) pre-weaning mortality rate observed in pigs. Insulin resistance commences at around week 12 of gestation in the sow, although there are conflicting reports in the literature about the extent to which insulin resistance is modulated by maternal diet. The aim of the study was to determine the effects of supplementing the maternal diet with different dietary oils during either the first half or the second half of gestation on the glucose tolerance of the sow. Sows were offered the control (C: n = 5) diet as pellets or the C diet plus 10% extra energy (h = 16 per group) derived from either. (i) extra pellets; (ii) palm oil; (iii) olive oil; (iv) sunflower oil; or (v) fish oil. Experimental diets were fed during either the first (G1) or second (G2) half of gestation. A glucose tolerance test (GTT) was conducted on day 108 of gestation by administering 0.5g/kg glucose i.v. Blood samples were taken every 5 to 10 min for 90 min post administration. The change in body weight and backfat thickness during gestation was similar but both type and timing of dietary supplementation influenced litter size and weight. With the exception of the sunflower oil group, supplementing the maternal diet in G1 resulted in larger and heavier litters, particularly in mothers offered palm oil. Basal blood glucose concentrations tended to be more elevated in G1 than G2 groups, whilst plasma insulin concentrations were similar Following a GTT, the adjusted area under the curve was greater in G1 compared to G2 sows, despite no differences in glucose clearance. Maternal diet appeared to influence the relationship between glucose curve characteristics following a GTT and litter outcome. In conclusion, the degree of insulin sensitivity can be altered by both the period during which maternal nutritional supplementation is offered and the fatty acid profile of the diet.

Intergenerational effects of birth weight on glucose tolerance and reproductive performance

Women who were themselves small-for-gestational age (SGA) are at a greater risk of adulthood diseases such as non-insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus (NIDDM), and twice at risk of having an SGA baby themselves. The aim of this study was to examine the intergenerational pig. Low (L) and normal (N) birth weight female piglets were followed throughout their first pregnancy (generation 1 (0)). After they had given birth, the growth and development of the lightest (I) and heaviest (n) female piglet from each litter were monitored until approximately 5 months of age (generation 2 (G2)). A glucose tolerance test (GTT) was conducted on G1 pig at similar to 6 months of age and again during late pregnancy; a GTT was also conducted on G2 pigs at similar to 4 months of age. G1 L offspring exhibited impaired glucose metabolism in later life compared to their G1 N sibling but in the next generation a similar scenario was only observed between I and n offspring born to G1 L mothers. Despite G1 L mothers showing greater glucose intolerance in late pregnancy and a decreased litter size, average piglet birth weight was reduced and there was also a large variation in litter weight; this suggests that they were, to some extent, prioritising their nutrient intake towards themselves rather than promoting their reproductive performance. There were numerous relationships between body shape at birth and glucose curve characteristics in later life, which can, to some extent, be used to predict neonatal outcome. In conclusion, intergenerational effects are partly seen in the pig. It is likely that some of the intergenerational influences may be masked due to the pig being a litter-bearing species.

Influence of porcine genotype on the abundance of thyroid hormones and leptin in sow milk and its impact on growth, metabolism and expression of key adipose tissue genes in offspring

Neonatal mortality is greater in commercial porcine genotypes, compared with the ancient Meishan breed that rapidly lay down adipose tissue; this may be related to hormones, such as triiodothyronine (T3) or leptin. Leptin is present in maternal milk; however, the extent to which this supply provides the neonate with leptin is unknown, but may play a role in growth and development. We investigated whether thyroid hormones and leptin concentrations in maternal milk differed between genotypes; and whether this influenced piglet concentrations or expression of genes involved in adipose tissue regulation. Eight Meishan and six commercial sows were entered into the study and milk samples from the day of parturition to day 4 postpartum was taken daily. The median birth weight piglet in each litter had a daily venous blood sample taken and was euthanised on day 4. Gene expressions of IGF-I, IGF-binding protein 3 (IGFBP-3), peroxisome proliferators activated receptor (PPAR) and glucocorticoid receptor (GR) were measured in adipose tissue using real-time PCR. T3 was increased in Meishan milk, but not in piglet plasma. Milk thyroxine was similar between breeds but commercial piglet levels were significantly higher. Leptin was higher in commercial sow milk throughout the study. Milk leptin was strongly correlated to plasma leptin during the first postnatal days and also to organ and body weight in Meishan piglets that also had significantly higher expression of GR, but not IGF-I, IGFBP-3 or PPAR. In conclusion, we have found a significant disparity in the provision of thyroid hormones in Meishan and commercial sow’s milk. These changes are not always translated to plasma concentrations of hormone in the piglet. Leptin appears to have a stronger role in growth and development in the Meishan genotype compared with commercial; along with the increased GR expression, this may also represent a potential mechanism behind the rapid accumulation of adipose tissue in Meishan piglets.

The value of sown grass margins for enhancing soil macrofaunal biodiversity in arable systems

The presence of a grass strip was found to be beneficial to soil macrofauna, increasing the species densities and abundances of earthworms, woodlice and staphylinid beetles. The biodiversity of the three main feeding groups - predators, soil ingesters and litter consumers - was also significantly higher in the grass strips than in the field edges without strips, indicating that establishment of grassy margins in arable fields may enhance ecosystem services such as soil fertility and pest control. The grass strip habitat contained a large number of species of soil macrofauna, being second only to hedgerow habitat, with 10% of the total species list for the farm found only within the margins. Of the rare species recorded on the farm, five of the nine were from the grass strips, four of which were found only there. This study shows that establishing grassy strips in the margins of arable fields increases the biodiversity of the soil macrofauna, both within fields (alpha diversity) and across the farm (beta diversity). (C) 2008 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

The value of arable field margins for enhancing soil macrofaunal biodiversity in agroecosystems

The presence of a grass strip was found to be beneficial to soil macrofauna, increasing the species densities and abundances of earthworms, woodlice and staphylinid beetles. The biodiversity of the three main feeding groups – predators, soil ingesters and litter consumers – was also significantly higher in the grass strips than in the field edges without strips, indicating that establishment of grassy margins in arable fields may enhance ecosystem services such as soil fertility and pest control. The grass strip habitat contained a large number of species of soil macrofauna, being second only to hedgerow habitat, with 10% of the total species list for the farm found only within the margins. Of the rare species recorded on the farm, five of the nine were from the grass strips, four of which were found only there. This study shows that establishing grassy strips in the margins of arable fields increases the biodiversity of the soil macrofauna, both within fields (alpha diversity) and across the farm (beta diversity).

Can arable field margins be managed to enhance their biodiversity, conservation and functional value for soil macrofauna?

1. The establishment of grassy strips at the margins of arable fields is an agri-environment scheme that aims to provide resources for native flora and fauna and thus increase farmland biodiversity. These margins can be managed to target certain groups, such as farmland birds and pollinators, but the impact of such management on the soil fauna has been poorly studied. This study assessed the effect of seed mix and management on the biodiversity, conservation and functional value of field margins for soil macrofauna. 2. Experimental margin plots were established in 2001 in a winter wheat field in Cambridgeshire, UK, using a factorial design of three seed mixes and three management practices [spring cut, herbicide application and soil disturbance (scarification)]. In spring and autumn 2005, soil cores taken from the margin plots and the crop were hand-sorted for soil macrofauna. The Lumbricidae, Isopoda, Chilopoda, Diplopoda, Carabidae and Staphylinidae were identified to species and classified according to feeding type. 3. Diversity in the field margins was generally higher than in the crop, with the Lumbricidae, Isopoda and Coleoptera having significantly more species and/or higher abundances in the margins. Within the margins, management had a significant effect on the soil macrofauna, with scarified plots containing lower abundances and fewer species of Isopods. The species composition of the scarified plots was similar to that of the crop. 4. Scarification also reduced soil- and litter-feeder abundances and predator species densities, although populations appeared to recover by the autumn, probably as a result of dispersal from neighbouring plots and boundary features. The implications of the responses of these feeding groups for ecosystem services are discussed. 5. Synthesis and applications. This study shows that the management of agri-environment schemes can significantly influence their value for soil macrofauna. In order to encourage the litter-dwelling invertebrates that tend to be missing from arable systems, agri-environment schemes should aim to minimize soil cultivation and develop a substantial surface litter layer. However, this may conflict with other aims of these schemes, such as enhancing floristic and pollinator diversity.

Mammal reproductive strategies driven by offspring mortality-size relationships

Trade-offs have long been a major theme in life-history theory, but they have been hard to document. We introduce a new method that reveals patterns of divergent trade-offs after adjusting for the pervasive variation in rate of resource allocation to offspring as a function of body size and lifestyle. Results suggest that preweaning vulnerability to predation has been the major factor determining how female placental mammals allocate production between a few large and many small offspring within a litter and between a few large litters and many small ones within a reproductive season. Artiodactyls, perissodactyls, cetaceans, and pinnipeds, which give birth in the open on land or in the sea, produce a few large offspring, at infrequent intervals, because this increases their chances of escaping predation. Insectivores, fissiped carnivores, lagomorphs, and rodents, whose offspring are protected in burrows or nests, produce large litters of small newborns. Primates, bats, sloths, and anteaters, which carry their young from birth until weaning, produce litters of one or a few offspring because of the need to transport and care for them.