Tumour necrosis factor alpha induces rapid reduction in AMPA receptor-mediated calcium entry in motor neurones by increasing cell surface expression of the GluR2 subunit: relevance to neurodegeneration

The AMPA receptor (AMPAR) subunit GluR2, which regulates excitotoxicity and the inflammatory cytokine tumour necrosis factor alpha (TNF alpha) have both been implicated in motor neurone vulnerability in Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis/Motor Neurone Disease. TNF alpha has been reported to increase cell surface expression of AMPAR subunits to increase synaptic strength and enhance excitotoxicity, but whether this mechanism occurs in motor neurones is unknown. We used primary cultures of mouse motor neurones and cortical neurones to examine the interaction between TNF alpha receptor activation, GluR2 availability, AMPAR-mediated calcium entry and susceptibility to excitotoxicity. Short exposure to a physiologically relevant concentration of TNFalpha (10 ng/ml, 15 min) caused a marked redistribution of both GluR1 and GluR2 to the cell surface as determined by cell surface biotinylation and immunofluorescence. Using Fura-2 AM microfluorimetry we showed that exposure to TNFalpha caused a rapid reduction in the peak amplitude of AMPA-mediated calcium entry in a PI3-kinase and p38 kinase-dependent manner, consistent with increased insertion of GluR2-containing AMPAR into the plasma membrane. This resulted in a protection of motor neurones against kainate-induced cell death. Our data therefore, suggests that TNF alpha acts primarily as a physiological regulator of synaptic activity in motor neurones rather than a pathological drive in ALS

Space physics for graduate students: an activities-based approach

The geospace environment is controlled largely by events on the Sun, such as solar flares and coronal mass ejections, which generate significant geomagnetic and upper atmospheric disturbances. The study of this Sun-Earth system, which has become known as space weather, has both intrinsic scientific interest and practical applications. Adverse conditions in space can damage satellites and disrupt communications, navigation, and electric power grids, as well as endanger astronauts. The Center for Integrated Space Weather Modeling (CISM), a Science and Technology Center (STC) funded by the U.S. National Science Foundation (see http://www.bu.edu/cism/), is developing a suite of integrated physics-based computer models that describe the space environment from the Sun to the Earth for use in both research and operations [Hughes and Hudson, 2004, p. 1241]. To further this mission, advanced education and training programs sponsored by CISM encourage students to view space weather as a system that encompasses the Sun, the solar wind, the magnetosphere, and the ionosphere/thermosphere. This holds especially true for participants in the CISM space weather summer school [Simpson, 2004].

Cell entry by enveloped viruses: redox considerations for HIV and SARS-coronavirus

For enveloped viruses, genome entry into the target cell involves two major steps: virion binding to the cell-surface receptor and fusion of the virion and cell membranes. Virus-cell membrane fusion is mediated by the virus envelope complex, and its fusogenicity is the result of an active virus-cell interaction process that induces conformation changes within the envelope. For some viruses, such as influenza, exposure to an acidic milieu within the cell during the early steps of infection triggers the necessary structural changes. However, for other pathogens which are not exposed to such environmental stress, activation of fusogenicity can result from precise thiol/disulfide rearrangements mediated by either an endogenous redox autocatalytic isomerase or a cell-associated oxidoreductase. Study of the activation of HIV envelope fusogenicity has revealed new knowledge about how redox changes within a viral envelope trigger fusion. We discuss these findings and their implication for anti-HIV therapy. In addition, to compare and contrast the situation outlined for HIV with an enveloped virus that can fuse with the cell plasma membrane independent of the redox status of its envelope protein, we review parallel data obtained on SARS coronavirus entry.

The role of voltage gated T-type Ca2+ channel isoforms in mediating "capacitative" Ca2+ entry in cancer cells

The mechanism by which Ca2+ enters electrically non-excitable cells is unclear. The sensitivity of the Ca2+ entry pathway in electrically non-excitable cells to inhibition by extracellular Ni2+ was used to direct the synthesis of a library of simple, novel compounds. These novel compounds inhibit Ca2+ entry into and, consequently, proliferation of several cancer cell lines. They showed stereoselective inhibition of proliferation and Ca2+ influx with identical stereoselective inhibition of heterologously expressed Cav3.2 isoform of T-type Ca2+ channels. Proliferation of human embryonic kidney (HEK)293 cells transfected with the Cav3.2 Ca2+ channel was also blocked. Cancer cell lines sensitive to our compounds express message for the Cav3.2 T-type Ca2+ channel isoform, its delta25B splice variant, or both, while a cell line resistant to our compounds does not. These observations raise the possibility that clinically useful drugs can be designed based upon the ability to block these Ca2+ channels.

Synthetic entry to functionalised morpholines and [1,4]-oxazepanes via reductive amination reactions of carbohydrate derived dialdehydes

The rapid synthesis of functionalised morpholines and [1,4]-oxazepanes displaying up to three stereocentres, by reductive amination reactions between carbohydrate derived dialdehydes and a range of amines, is described. (C) 2004 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Stereoselective entry to beta-linked C-disaccharides using a carbon-Ferrier reaction

[GRAPHICS] The synthesis of unsaturated beta-linked C-disaccharides by the Lewis acid-mediated reaction of 3-O-acetylated glycals with monosaccharide-derived alkenes is described. Deprotection and selective hydrogenation of an exocyclic carbon-carbon double, in the presence of an endocyclic double bond, for representative targets is also illustrated.

The graduate teacher programme in England: mentor training, quality assurance and the findings of inspection

In its recent report on the Graduate Teacher Programme (GTP), an employment-based route to Qualified Teacher Status (QTS) in England, the Government's Office for Standards in Education found that, although almost all trainees meet the standards required to qualify, too often they do so at an adequate level, rather than achieving the high levels of which they should be capable. The underlying reason for this is the quality of mentoring provided in the schools. The inspectors concluded that schoolbased trainers are often not adequately prepared for their role in implementing wide-ranging training programmes for trainee teachers. Despite this generally bleak picture, Ofsted concluded that 'the minority of cases of good practice in the training programmes and of high quality teaching by trainees indicate that the GTP can be an effective alternative route for training teachers'™. This article considers the strengths and weaknesses of the Graduate Teacher Programme, introduced in January 1998, and also reports on a small-scale project, funded by the Teacher Training Agency (TTA), the key objective of which was to strengthen the existing partnerships by improving the quality of school-based tutor training and continuous professional development of staff.

Meal ingestion provokes entry of lipoproteins containing fat from the previous meal: possible metabolic implications

Background: Prolonged and exaggerated postprandial plasma triacylglycerol (TAG) concentrations are considered as an independent risk factor for coronary artery disease. Western populations eat many meals at regular intervals, and can be in a postprandial state for at least 17h of a 24h period. After consuming 2 meals an early plasma TAG peak has been observed after the second meal, the origin of which is unclear. Aim of the study: To test the hypothesis that the early TAG peak observed following sequential meals was of intestinal origin and represented fat derived from the previous meal. Methods: Postprandial plasma lipaemic responses of 17 healthy postmenopausal women were studied by giving a test breakfast followed by a lunch. Watermiscible retinyl palmitate (RP) was added to the breakfast, but not the lunch test meal. Plasma TAG, retinyl esters (RE) and apo B-48 were determined for a 10h period following breakfast. Results: In response to the test meals, RE, apo B-48 and TAG showed multiple peaks. Despite omission of RP from the lunch, RE showed an early peak response after ingestion of lunch in 15 of 17 subjects. The peak response after lunch of all three markers appeared significantly earlier compared with their respective peak responses after the breakfast (P < 0.0001). The area of RE response after lunch was significantly correlated with the RE lipaemic response to the breakfast (r = 0.67; P < 0.004) and to the fasting TAG concentration (r = 0.48; P < 0.05). Conclusions: Since the lunch did not contain RP, the distinctive second influx of RE after lunch was believed to have originated from the breakfast. This, together with the fact that all three markers showed an earlier response to the lunch than the breakfast, supports the view that ingestion of a second meal provokes entry of fat from the previous meal, from an as yet unidentified site (gut, enterocytes, lymph). The results indicate that the degree of TAG "storage" from previous meals might be a function of TAG tolerance and provide a possible site of regulation of the entry of fat into the systemic circulation.

Physiological changes in Campylobacter jejuni on entry into stationary phase

Campylobacter jejuni NCTC 11168 does not exhibit the general increase in cellular stress resistance on entry into stationary phase that is seen in most other bacteria. This is consistent with the lack of global stationary phase regulatory elements in this organism. deduced from an analysis of its genome sequence. We now show that C. jejuni NCTC 11168 does undergo certain changes in stationary phase, of a pattern not previously described. As cells entered stationary phase there was a change in membrane fatty acid composition, principally a decrease in the proportion of unsaturated fatty acids and an increase in the content of cyclopropane and short-chain fatty acids. These changes in membrane composition were accompanied by an increase in the resilience of the cell membrane towards loss of integrity caused by pressure and an increase in cellular pressure resistance. By contrast. there were no major changes in resistance to acid or heat treatment. A similar pattern of changes in stress resistance on entry, into stationary phase was seen in C. jejuni NCTC 11351, the type strain. These changes appear to represent a restricted Physiological response to the conditions existing in stationary phase cultures, in an organism having limited capacity for genetic regulation and adaptation to environment. © 2004 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

A new entry to 4,6-O-benzylidene glucal from phenyl 1-seleno-alpha-D-mannopyranoside

The two-step synthesis of 4,6-O-benzylidene glucal, in 59% overall yield, from phenyl 1-seleno-alpha-D-mannopyranoside is described. (c) 2005 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Development of new methodologies for entry to targets of therapeutic interest

This Account provides an overview of strategies that have been reported from our laboratories for the synthesis of targets of therapeutic interest, namely carbohydrates, and prodrugs for the treatment of melanoma. These programmes have involved the development of new synthetic methodologies including the regio- and stereoselective synthesis of specific carbohydrate isomers, and new protecting group methodologies. This review provides an insight into the progress of these research themes, and suggests some applications for the targets that are currently being explored.