A Bayesian approach to estimate sensible and latent heat over vegetated land surface

Sensible and latent heat fluxes are often calculated from bulk transfer equations combined with the energy balance. For spatial estimates of these fluxes, a combination of remotely sensed and standard meteorological data from weather stations is used. The success of this approach depends on the accuracy of the input data and on the accuracy of two variables in particular: aerodynamic and surface conductance. This paper presents a Bayesian approach to improve estimates of sensible and latent heat fluxes by using a priori estimates of aerodynamic and surface conductance alongside remote measurements of surface temperature. The method is validated for time series of half-hourly measurements in a fully grown maize field, a vineyard and a forest. It is shown that the Bayesian approach yields more accurate estimates of sensible and latent heat flux than traditional methods.

A novel method for assessing risks to pollinators from plant protection products using honeybees as a model species

Pollination is one of the most important ecosystem services in agroecosystems and supports food production. Pollinators are potentially at risk being exposed to pesticides and the main route of exposure is direct contact, in some cases ingestion, of contaminated materials such as pollen, nectar, flowers and foliage. To date there are no suitable methods for predicting pesticide exposure for pollinators, therefore official procedures to assess pesticide risk are based on a Hazard Quotient. Here we develop a procedure to assess exposure and risk for pollinators based on the foraging behaviour of honeybees (Apis mellifera) and using this species as indicator representative of pollinating insects. The method was applied in 13 European field sites with different climatic, landscape and land use characteristics. The level of risk during the crop growing season was evaluated as a function of the active ingredients used and application regime. Risk levels were primarily determined by the agronomic practices employed (i.e. crop type, pest control method, pesticide use), and there was a clear temporal partitioning of risks through time. Generally the risk was higher in sites cultivated with permanent crops, such as vineyard and olive, than in annual crops, such as cereals and oil seed rape. The greatest level of risk is generally found at the beginning of the growing season for annual crops and later in June–July for permanent crops.

“Les petits renards qui détruisent la Vigne du Seigneur Sabaoth”. Innocent III et le Cantique des cantiques

This article examines medieval interpretations of the Song of Songs and their appearance in the correspondence of one of the greatest popes of the High Middle Ages: Innocent III (1198-1216). Innocent III’s depiction of heretics in the south of France as ‘the little foxes which destroy the vineyard of the Lord of Hosts’ was not unprecedented: decades earlier Saint Bernard of Clairvaux had also likened the ‘little foxes’ to heretics in his sermons. Bernard’s renown both as mystical theologian and tireless political advocate of the papacy meant that Innocent is likely to have drawn on such sermons for inspiration when composing his correspondence to the Christian faithful. Innocent’s references to the Song of Songs also provide conclusive evidence that a significant number of his letters have a highly personal flavour and that we really can discern a pope’s own ‘voice’ through his correspondence.