Delivering sustainability therapy in Sustainable Development projects

This paper explores the apparent contradiction between the 'linearity' of most Sustainable Development projects, with time-bound and defined outputs achieved at a fixed cost, and an implied 'circularity' of the theory whereby there is no 'end'. Projects usually have clear parameters within which they are implemented, and the inclusion of elements such as the need for accountability, measurable impact and,value for money' have grown in importance. It could be argued that we live in a 'projectified' and therefore linear world. The paper explores the potential contradiction between 'linearity' and 'circularity', and suggests that one way around this is to frame the project within a form of the Kolb Learning Cycle heuristic. This will facilitate a rationalisation from those implementing the sustainable development project as to why decisions are being made and for whom. If these questions are opened up to the project stakeholders, including beneficiaries, then the Kolb cycle could encourage learning and understanding by all involved. It could also provide Sustainability Therapy to those trapped in processes, which they find orthogonal to their own perceptions. It is suggested that such learning, therapy and reflective practice should be a valid output of the sustainable development project, although typically the focus is only upon the final outputs and how they feed into policy. Ironically funders would be well advised to take a broader perspective in order to achieve true 'value for money' within such projects, even if learning is not an easily measurable or tangible outcome. These points are explored within the context of the wider literature and experience with a sustainable development project undertaken in Malta. (c) 2005 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

A glacier inventory for the Buordakh Massif, Cherskiy Range, northeast Siberia, and evidence for recent glacier recession

The Buordakh Massif, in the Cherskiy Range of northeast Siberia, contains mountains over 3000 in and, despite its and climate, numerous glaciers. This paper presents a glacier inventory for the region and documents some 80 glaciers, which range in size from 0.1 to 10.4 km(2) (total glacierized area is ca. 70 km(2)). The inventory is based on mapping derived from Landsat 7 ETM+ satellite imagery from August 2001, augmented with data from field investigations obtained at that time. The glaciers in this region are of the 'firn-less,' cold, continental type, and their mass balance relies heavily on the formation of superimposed ice. The most recent glacier maximum extents have also been delineated, and these are believed to date from the Little Ice Age (ca. A.D. 1550-1850). Glacier areal extent has reduced by some 14.8 km(2) (ca. 17%) since this most. recent maximum. Of the 80 glaciers catalogued, 49 have undergone a measurable retreat from their most recent maximum extent.

Searching for the perfect surface area normalizing term - a comparison of BET surface area-, geometric surface area- and mass-normalized dissolution rates of anorthite and biotite

Dissolution rates were calculated for a range of grain sizes of anorthite and biotite dissolved under far from equilibrium conditions at pH 3, T = 20 degrees C. Dissolution rates were normalized to initial and final BET surface area, geometric surface area, mass and (for biotite only) geometric edge surface area. Constant (within error) dissolution rates were only obtained by normalizing to initial BET surface area for biotite. The normalizing term that gave the smallest variation about the mean for anorthite was initial BET surface area. In field studies, only current (final) surface area is measurable. In this study, final geometric surface area gave the smallest variation for anorthite dissolution rates and final geometric edge surface area for biotite dissolution rates. (c) 2005 Published by Elsevier B.V.

Does reactive surface area depend on grain size? Results from pH 3, 25 circle C far-from-equilibrium flow-through dissolution experiments on anorthite and biotite

Laboratory determined mineral weathering rates need to be normalised to allow their extrapolation to natural systems. The principle normalisation terms used in the literature are mass, and geometric- and BET specific surface area (SSA). The purpose of this study was to determine how dissolution rates normalised to these terms vary with grain size. Different size fractions of anorthite and biotite ranging from 180-150 to 20-10 mu m were dissolved in pH 3, HCl at 25 degrees C in flow through reactors under far from equilibrium conditions. Steady state dissolution rates after 5376 h (anorthite) and 4992 h (biotite) were calculated from Si concentrations and were normalised to initial- and final- mass and geometric-, geometric edge- (biotite), and BET SSA. For anorthite, rates normalised to initial- and final-BET SSA ranged from 0.33 to 2.77 X 10(-10) mol(feldspar) m(-2) s(-1), rates normalised to initial- and final-geometric SSA ranged from 5.74 to 8.88 X 10(-10) mol(feldspar) m(-2) s(-1) and rates normalised to initial- and final-mass ranged from 0.11 to 1.65 mol(feldspar) g(-1) s(-1). For biotite, rates normalised to initial- and final-BET SSA ranged from 1.02 to 2.03 X 10(-12) mol(biotite) m(-2) s(-1), rates normalised to initial- and final-geometric SSA ranged from 3.26 to 16.21 X 10(-12) mol(biotite) m(-2) s(-1), rates normalised to initial- and final-geometric edge SSA ranged from 59.46 to 111.32 x 10(-12) mol(biotite) m(-2) s(-1) and rates normalised to initial- and final-mass ranged from 0.81 to 6.93 X 10(-12) mol(biotite) g(-1) s(-1). For all normalising terms rates varied significantly (p <= 0.05) with grain size. The normalising terms which gave least variation in dissolution rate between grain sizes for anorthite were initial BET SSA and initial- and final-geometric SSA. This is consistent with: (1) dissolution being dominated by the slower dissolving but area dominant non-etched surfaces of the grains and, (2) the walls of etch pits and other dissolution features being relatively unreactive. These steady state normalised dissolution rates are likely to be constant with time. Normalisation to final BET SSA did not give constant ratios across grain size due to a non-uniform distribution of dissolution features. After dissolution coarser grains had a greater density of dissolution features with BET-measurable but unreactive wall surface area than the finer grains. The normalising term which gave the least variation in dissolution rates between grain sizes for biotite was initial BET SSA. Initial- and final-geometric edge SSA and final BET SSA gave the next least varied rates. The basal surfaces dissolved sufficiently rapidly to influence bulk dissolution rate and prevent geometric edge SSA normalised dissolution rates showing the least variation. Simple modelling indicated that biotite grain edges dissolved 71-132 times faster than basal surfaces. In this experiment, initial BET SSA best integrated the different areas and reactivities of the edge and basal surfaces of biotite. Steady state dissolution rates are likely to vary with time as dissolution alters the ratio of edge to basal surface area. Therefore they would be more properly termed pseudo-steady state rates, only appearing constant because the time period over which they were measured (1512 h) was less than the time period over wich they would change significantly. (c) 2006 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.

Prediction leaching of potassium using the convective-dispersive and the convective log-normal transfer function models

There is increasing concern about soil enrichment with K+ and subsequent potential losses following long-term application of poor quality water to agricultural land. Different models are increasingly being used for predicting or analyzing water flow and chemical transport in soils and groundwater. The convective-dispersive equation (CDE) and the convective log-normal transfer function (CLT) models were fitted to the potassium (K+) leaching data. The CDE and CLT models produced equivalent goodness of fit. Simulated breakthrough curves for a range of CaCl2 concentration based on parameters of 15 mmol l(-1) CaCl2 were characterised by an early peak position associated with higher K+ concentration as the CaCl2 concentration used in leaching experiments decreased. In another method, the parameters estimated from 15 mmol l(-1) CaCl2 solution were used for all other CaCl2 concentrations, and the best value of retardation factor (R) was optimised for each data set. A better prediction was found. With decreasing CaCl2 concentration the value of R is required to be more than that measured (except for 10 mmol l(-1) CaCl2), if the estimated parameters of 15 mmol l(-1) CaCl2 are used. The two models suffer from the fact that they need to be calibrated against a data set, and some of their parameters are not measurable and cannot be determined independently.

Earthworms produce granules of intricately zoned calcite

Earthworms of the family Lumbricidae, which includes many common species, produce and secrete up to millimeter-sized calcite granules, and the intricate fine-scale zoning of their constituent crystals is unique for a biomineral. Granule calcite is produced by crystallization of amorphous calcium carbonate (ACC) that initially precipitates within the earthworm calciferous glands, then forms protogranules by accretion on quartz grain cores. Crystallization of ACC is mediated by migrating fluid films and is largely complete within 24 11 of ACC production and before granules leave the earthworm. Variations in the density of defects formed as a byproduct of trace element incorporation during calcite crystall growth have generated zoning that can be resolved by cathodoluminescence imaging at ultraviolet to blue wavelengths and using the novel technique of scanning electron microscope charge contrast imaging. Mapping of calcite crystal orientations by electron backscatter diffraction reveals an approximate radial fabric to the granules that reflects crystal growth from internal nucleation sites toward their margins. The survival within granules of ACC inclusions for months after they enter soils indicates that they crystallize only within the earthworm and in the presence of fluids containing biochemical catalysts. The earthworm probably promotes crystallization of ACC in order to prevent remobilization of the calcium carbonate by dissolution. Calcite granules vividly illustrate the role of transient precursors in biomineralization, but the underlying question of why earth-worms produce granules in volumes sufficient to have a measurable impact on soil carbon cycling remains to be answered.

Ground deformation at Soufriere Hills Volcano, Montserrat during 1998-2000 measured by radar interferometry and GPS

We examine the motion of the ground surface on the Soufriere Hills Volcano, Montserrat between 1998 and 2000 using radar interferometry (InSAR). To minimise the effects of variable atmospheric water vapour on the InSAR measurements we use independently-derived measurements of the radar path delay from six continuous GPS receivers. The surfaces providing a measurable inter-ferometric signal are those on pyroclastic flow deposits, mainly emplaced in 1997. Three types of surface motion can be discriminated. Firstly, the surfaces of thick, valley-filling deposits subsided at rates of 150-120 mm/year in the year after emplacement to 50-30 mm/year two years later. This must be due to contraction and settling effects during cooling. The second type is the near-field motion localised within about one kilometre of the dome. Both subsidence and uplift events are seen and though the former could be due to surface gravitational effects, the latter may reflect shallow (< 1 km) pressurisation effects within the conduit/dome. Far-field motions of the surface away from the deeply buried valleys are interpreted as crustal strains. Because the flux of magma to the surface stopped from March 1998 to November 1999 and then resumed from November 1999 through 2000, we use InSAR data from these two periods to test the crustal strain behaviour of three models of magma supply: open, depleting and unbalanced. The InSAR observations of strain gradients of 75-80 mm/year/krn uplift during the period of quiescence on the western side of the volcano are consistent with an unbalanced model in which magma supply into a crustal magma chamber continues during quiescence, raising chamber pressure that is then released upon resumption of effusion. GPS motion vectors agree qualitatively with the InSAR displacements but are of smaller magnitude. The discrepancy may be due to inaccurate compensation for atmospheric delays in the InSAR data. (c) 2005 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Fine wire resistance thermometer amplifier for atmospheric measurements

An improved amplifier for atmospheric fine wire resistance thermometry is described. The amplifier uses a low excitation current (50 mu A). This is shown to ensure negligible self-heating of the low mass fine wire resistance sensor, compared with measured nocturnal surface air temperature fluctuations. The system provides sufficient amplification for a +/- 50 degrees C span using a +/- 5 V dynamic range analog-to-digital converter, with a noise level of less than 0.01 degrees C. A Kelvin four-wire connection cancels the effect of long lead resistances: a 50 m length of screened cable connecting the Reading design of fine wire thermometer to the amplifier produced no measurable temperature change at 12 bit resolution.

Optimal protection of stabilised dry live bacteria from bile toxicity in oral dosage forms by bile acid adsorbent resins

We previously found that dried live bacteria of a vaccine strain can be temporarily sensitive to bile acids and suggested that Bile Adsorbing Resins (BAR) can be used in oral vaccine tablets to protect dried bacteria from intestinal bile. Here, we report a quantitative analysis of the ability of BAR to exclude the dye bromophenol blue from penetrating into matrix tablets and also sections of hard capsule shells. Based on this quantitative analysis, we made a fully optimised formulation, comprising 25% w/w of cholestyramine in Vcaps™ HPMC capsules. This gave effectively 100% protection of viability from 4% bile, with 4200-fold more live bacteria recovered from this formulation compared to unprotected dry bacteria. From the image analysis, we found that the filler material or compaction force used had no measurable effect on dye exclusion but did affect the rate of tablet hydration. Increasing the mass fraction of BAR gave more exclusion of dye up to 25% w/w, after which a plateau was reached and no further dye exclusion was seen. More effective dye exclusion was seen with smaller particle sizes (i.e. cholestyramine) and when the BAR was thoroughly dried and disaggregated. Similar results were found when imaging dye penetration into capsule sections or tablets. The predictions of the dye penetration study were tested using capsules filled with dried attenuated Salmonella vaccine plus different BAR types, and the expected protection from bile was found, validating the imaging study. Surprisingly, depending on the capsule shell material, some protection was given by the capsule alone without adding BAR, with Vcaps™ HPMC capsules providing up to 174-fold protection against 1% bile; faster releasing Vcaps Plus™ HPMC capsules and Coni Snap™ gelatin capsules gave less protection.

In vitro degradability of mature and immature leaves of tropical forage legumes differing in condensed tannin and non-starch polysaccharide content and composition

A study was designed to examine the relationships between protein, condensed tannin and cell wall carbohydrate content and composition and the nutritional quality of seven tropical legumes (Desmodium ovalifolium, Flemingia macrophylla, Leucaena leucocephala, L pallida, L macrophylla, Calliandra calothyrsus and Clitotia fairchildiana). Among the legume species studied, D ovalifolium showed the lowest concentration of nitrogen, while L leucocephala showed the highest. Fibre (NDF) content was lowest in C calothyrsus, L Leucocephala and L pallida and highest in L macrophylla, which had no measurable condensed tannins. The highest tannin concentration was found in C calothyrsus. Total non-structural polysaccharides (NSP) varied among legumes species (lowest in C calothyrsus and highest in D ovalifolium), and glucose and uronic acids were the most abundant carbohydrate constituents in all legumes. Total NSP losses were lowest in F macrophylla and highest in L leucocephala and L pallida. Gas accumulation and acetate and propionate levels were 50% less with F macrophylla and D ovalifolium as compared with L leucocephala. The highest levels of branched-chain fatty acids were observed with non-tanniniferous legumes, and negative concentrations were observed with some of the legumes with high tannin content (D ovalifolium and F macrophylla). Linear regression analysis showed that the presence of condensed tannins was more related to a reduction of the initial rate of gas production (0-48 h) than to the final amount of gas produced or the extent (144h) of dry matter degradation, which could be due to differences in tannin chemistry. Consequently, more attention should be given in the future to elucidating the impact of tannin structure on the nutritional quality of tropical forage legumes. (C) 2003 Society of Chemical Industry.

Splanchnic metabolism of nutrients and hormones in steers fed alfalfa under conditions of increased absorption of ammonia and L-arginine supply across the portal-drained viscera

Effects of increased ammonia and/or arginine absorption on net splanchnic (portal-drained viscera [PDV] plus liver) metabolism of nonnitrogenous nutrients and hormones in cattle were examined. Six Hereford x Angus steers (501 +/- 1 kg BW) prepared with vascular catheters for measurements of net flux across the splanchnic bed were fed a 75% alfalfa:25% (as-fed basis) corn and soybean meal diet (0.523 MJ of ME/[kg BW(0.75.)d]) every 2 h without (27.0 g of N/kg of DM) and. with 20 g of urea/kg of DM (35.7 g of N/kg of DM) in a split-plot design. Net flux measurements were made immediately before and after a 72-h mesenteric vein infusion Of L-arginine (15 mmol/h). There were no treatment effects on PDV or hepatic 02 consumption. Dietary urea had no effect on splanchnic metabolism of glucose or L-lactate, but arginine infusion decreased net hepatic removal Of L-lactate when urea was fed (P < 0.01). Net PDV appearance of n-butyrate was increased by arginine infusion (P < 0.07), and both dietary urea (P < 0.09) and arginine infusion (P < 0.05) increased net hepatic removal of n-butyrate. Dietary urea also increased total splanchnic acetate output (P < 0.06), tended to increase arterial glucagon concentration (P < 0.11), and decreased arterial ST concentration (P < 0.03). Arginine infusion increased arterial concentration (P < 0.07) and net PDV release (P < 0.10) and tended to increase hepatic removal (P < 0.11) of insulin, as well as arterial concentration (P < 0.01) and total splanchnic output (P < 0.01) of glucagon. Despite changes in splanchnic N metabolism, increased ammonia and arginine absorption had little measurable effect on splanchnic metabolism of glucose and other nonnitrogenous components of splanchnic energy metabolism.

A Bayesian approach for dose-escalation in a phase I clinical trial incorporating pharmacodynamic endpoints

Bayesian decision procedures have already been proposed for and implemented in Phase I dose-escalation studies in healthy volunteers. The procedures have been based on pharmacokinetic responses reflecting the concentration of the drug in blood plasma and are conducted to learn about the dose-response relationship while avoiding excessive concentrations. However, in many dose-escalation studies, pharmacodynamic endpoints such as heart rate or blood pressure are observed, and it is these that should be used to control dose-escalation. These endpoints introduce additional complexity into the modeling of the problem relative to pharmacokinetic responses. Firstly, there are responses available following placebo administrations. Secondly, the pharmacodynamic responses are related directly to measurable plasma concentrations, which in turn are related to dose. Motivated by experience of data from a real study conducted in a conventional manner, this paper presents and evaluates a Bayesian procedure devised for the simultaneous monitoring of pharmacodynamic and pharmacokinetic responses. Account is also taken of the incidence of adverse events. Following logarithmic transformations, a linear model is used to relate dose to the pharmacokinetic endpoint and a quadratic model to relate the latter to the pharmacodynamic endpoint. A logistic model is used to relate the pharmacokinetic endpoint to the risk of an adverse event.

Diverse signalling by different chemokines through the chemokine receptor CCR5

We have investigated the signalling properties of the chemokine receptor, CCR5, using several assays for agonism: stimulation of changes in intracellular Ca2+ or CCR5 internalisation in CHO cells expressing CCR5 or stimulation of [S-35]GTP gamma S binding in membranes of CHO cells expressing CCR5. Four isoforms of the chemokine CCL3 with different amino termini (CCL3, CCL3(2-70), CCL3(5-70), CCL3L1) were tested in these assays in order to probe structure/activity relationships. Each isoform exhibited agonism. The pattern of agonism (potency, maximal effect) was different in the three assays, although the rank order was the same with CCL3L1 being the most potent and efficacious. The data show that the amino terminus of the chemokine is important for signalling. A proline at position 2 (CCL3L1) provides for high potency and efficacy but the isoform with a serine at position 2 (CCL3(2-70)) is as efficacious in some assays showing that the proline is not the only determinant of high efficacy. We also increased the sensitivity of CCR5 signalling by treating cells with sodium butyrate, thus increasing the receptor/G protein ratio. This allowed the detection of a change in intracellular Ca2+ after treatment with CCL7 and Met-RANTES showing that these ligands possess measurable but low efficacy. This study therefore shows that sodium butyrate treatment increases the sensitivity of signalling assays and enables the detection of efficacy in ligands previously considered as antagonists. The use of different assay systems, therefore, provides different estimates of efficacy for some ligands at this receptor. (c) 2006 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.

Relative importance of fertiliser addition to plants and exclusion of predators for aphid growth in the field

Herbivore dynamics and community structure are influenced both by plant quality and the actions of natural enemies. A factorial experiment manipulating both higher and lower trophic levels was designed to explore the determinants of colony growth of the aphid Aphis jacobaeae, a specialist herbivore on ragwort Senecio jacobaea. Potential plant quality was manipulated by regular addition of NPK-fertiliser and predator pressure was reduced by interception traps; the experiment was carried out at two sites. The size and persistence of aphid colonies were measured. Fertiliser addition affected plant growth in only one site, but never had a measurable effect on aphid colony growth. In both habitats the action of insect predators dominated, imposing strong and negative effects on aphid colony performance. Ants were left unmanipulated in both sites and their performance on the aphid colonies did not significantly differ between sites or between treatments. Our results suggest that, at least for aphid herbivores on S. jacobaea, the action of generalist insect predators appears to be the dominant factor affecting colony performance and can under certain conditions even improve plant productivity.

The effects of mass loading the ossicles with a floating mass transducer on middle ear transfer function

Hypothesis: The aim of this study was to measure the mass loading effect of an active middle-ear implant (the Vibrant Soundbridge) in cadaver temporal bones. Background: Implantable middle ear hearing devices such as Vibrant Soundbridge have been used as an alternative to conventional hearing aids for the rehabilitation of sensorineural hearing loss. Other than the obvious disadvantage of requiring implantation middle ear surgery, it also applies a direct weight on the ossicular chain which, in turn, may have an impact on residual hearing. Previous studies have shown that applying a mass directly on the ossicular chain has a damping effect on its response to sound. However, little has been done to investigate the magnitude and the frequency characteristics of the mass loading effect in devices such as the Vibrant Soundbridge. Methods: Five fresh cadaver temporal bones were used. The stapes displacement was measured using laser Doppler vibrometry before and after the placement of a Vibrant Sound-bridge floating mass transducer. The effects of mass and attachment site were compared with the unloaded response. Measurements were obtained at frequencies between 0.1 and 10 kHz and at acoustic input levels of 100 dB sound pressure level. Each temporal bone acted as its own control. Results: Placement of the floating mass transducer caused a reduction of the stapes displacement. There were variations between the bones. The change of the stapes displacement varied from 0 dB to 28 dB. The effect was more prominent at frequencies above 1,000 Hz. Placing the floating mass transducer close to the incudostapedial joint reduced the mass loading effect. Conclusion: The floating mass transducer produces a measurable reduction of the stapes displacement in the temporal bone model. The effect is more prominent at high frequencies.