Inhalation exposure to particulate matter in rooms with underfloor air distribution

This work investigated the personal exposure to indoor particulate matters using the intake fraction metric and provided a possible way to trace the particle inhaled from an indoor particle source. A turbulence model validated by the particle measurements in a room with underfloor air distribution (UFAD) system was used to predict the indoor particle concentrations. Inhalation intake fraction of indoor particles was defined and evaluated in two rooms equipped with the UFAD, i.e., the experimental room and a small office. According to the exposure characteristics and a typical respiratory rate, the intake fraction was determined in two rooms with a continuous and episodic (human cough) source of particles, respectively. The findings showed that the well-mixing assumption of indoor air failed to give an accurate estimation of inhalation exposure and the average concentration at return outlet or within the overall room could not relate well the intake fraction to the amount of particle emitted from an indoor source.

Statistical evaluation of the fixed concentration procedure for acute inhalation toxicity assessment

The conventional method for the assessment of acute inhalation toxicity (OECD Test Guideline 403, 1981) uses death of animals as an endpoint to identify the median lethal concentration (LC50). A new OECD Testing Guideline called the Fixed Concentration Procedure (FCP) is being prepared to provide an alternative to Test Guideline 403. Unlike Test Guideline 403, the FCP does not provide a point estimate of the LC50, but aims to identify an airborne exposure level that causes clear signs of nonlethal toxicity. This is then used to assign classification according to the new Globally Harmonized System of Classification and Labelling scheme (GHS). The FCP has been validated using statistical simulation rather than byin vivo testing. The statistical simulation approach predicts the GHS classification outcome and the numbers of deaths and animals used in the test for imaginary substances with a range of LC50 values and dose response curve slopes. This paper describes the FCP and reports the results from the statistical simulation study assessing its properties. It is shown that the procedure will be completed with considerably less death and suffering than Test Guideline 403, and will classify substances either in the same or a more stringent GHS class than that assigned on the basis of the LC50 value.

Accumulated metal speciation in earthworm populations with multi-generational exposure to metalliferous soils: cell fractionation and high energy synchrotron analyses

Predicting metal bioaccumulation and toxicity in soil organisms is complicated by site-specific biotic and abiotic parameters. In this study we exploited tissue fractionation and digestion techniques, combined with X-ray absorption spectroscopy (XAS), to investigate the whole-body and subcellular distributions, ligand affinities, and coordination chemistry of accumulated Pb and Zn in field populations of the epigeic earthworm Lumbricus rubellus inhabiting three contrasting metalliferous and two unpolluted soils. Our main findings were (i) earthworms were resident in soils with concentrations of Pb and Zn ranging from 1200 to 27 000 mg kg(-1) and 200 to 34 000 mg kg(-1), respectively; (ii) Pb and Zn primarily accumulated in the posterior alimentary canal in nonsoluble subcellular fractions of earthworms; (iii) site-specific differences in the tissue and subcellular partitioning profiles of populations were observed, with earthworms from a calcareous site partitioning proportionally more Pb to their anterior body segments and Zn to the chloragosome-rich subcellular fraction than their acidic-soil inhabiting counterparts; (iv) XAS indicated that the interpopulation differences in metal partitioning between organs were not accompanied by qualitative differences in ligand-binding speciation, because crystalline phosphate-containing pyromorphite was a predominant chemical species in the whole-worm tissues of all mine soil residents. Differences in metal (Pb, Zn) partitioning at both organ and cellular levels displayed by field populations with protracted histories of metal exposures may reflect their innate ecophysiological responses to essential edaphic variables, such as Ca2+ status. These observations are highly significant in the challenging exercise of interpreting holistic biomarker data delivered by "omic" technologies.

Human exposure modelling for chemical risk assessment: a review of current approaches and research and policy implications

A wide variety of exposure models are currently employed for health risk assessments. Individual models have been developed to meet the chemical exposure assessment needs of Government, industry and academia. These existing exposure models can be broadly categorised according to the following types of exposure source: environmental, dietary, consumer product, occupational, and aggregate and cumulative. Aggregate exposure models consider multiple exposure pathways, while cumulative models consider multiple chemicals. In this paper each of these basic types of exposure model are briefly described, along with any inherent strengths or weaknesses, with the UK as a case study. Examples are given of specific exposure models that are currently used, or that have the potential for future use, and key differences in modelling approaches adopted are discussed. The use of exposure models is currently fragmentary in nature. Specific organisations with exposure assessment responsibilities tend to use a limited range of models. The modelling techniques adopted in current exposure models have evolved along distinct lines for the various types of source. In fact different organisations may be using different models for very similar exposure assessment situations. This lack of consistency between exposure modelling practices can make understanding the exposure assessment process more complex, can lead to inconsistency between organisations in how critical modelling issues are addressed (e.g. variability and uncertainty), and has the potential to communicate mixed messages to the general public. Further work should be conducted to integrate the various approaches and models, where possible and regulatory remits allow, to get a coherent and consistent exposure modelling process. We recommend the development of an overall framework for exposure and risk assessment with common approaches and methodology, a screening tool for exposure assessment, collection of better input data, probabilistic modelling, validation of model input and output and a closer working relationship between scientists and policy makers and staff from different Government departments. A much increased effort is required is required in the UK to address these issues. The result will be a more robust, transparent, valid and more comparable exposure and risk assessment process. (C) 2006 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Metal bioaccumulation and cellular fractionation in an epigeic earthworm (Lumbricus rubellus): the interactive influences of population exposure histories, site-specific geochemistry and mitochondrial genotype

Subcellular fractionation techniques were used to describe temporal changes (at intervals from T0 to T70 days) in the Pb, Zn and P partitioning profiles of Lumbricus rubellus populations from one calcareous (MDH) and one acidic (MCS) geographically isolated Pb/Zn-mine sites and one reference site (CPF). MDH and MCS individuals were laboratory maintained on their native field soils; CPF worms were exposed to both MDH and MCS soils. Site-specific differences in metal partitioning were found: notably, the putatively metal-adapted populations, MDH and MCS, preferentially partitioned higher proportions of their accumulated tissue metal burdens into insoluble CaPO4-rich organelles compared with naive counterparts, CPF. Thus, it is plausible that efficient metal immobilization is a phenotypic trait characterising metal tolerant ecotypes. Mitochondrial cytochrome oxidase II (COII) genotyping revealed that the populations indigenous to mine and reference soils belong to distinct genetic lineages, differentiated by 13%, with 7 haplotypes within the reference site lineage but fewer (3 and 4, respectively) in the lineage common to the two mine sites. Collectively, these observations raise the possibility that site-related genotype differences could influence the toxico-availability of metals and, thus, represent a potential confounding variable in field-based eco-toxicological assessments.

Cell and nuclear degradation in sweetpotato [Ipomoea batatas (L.) Lam.] root meristems following exposure to salinity

Sodium chloride-induced cell and nuclear degradation in the root meristems of sweetpotato [Ipomoea batatas (L.) Lam.] were determined using fluorescent microscopy and flow cytometry analysis. Two sweetpotato cultivars were grown in liquid Murashige and Skoog medium and subjected to 0 mM and 500 mM NaCl, with or without 15 mM CaCl2, for periods up to 24 h. Changes to the nuclei of root meristematic cells showed a similar pattern of damage to the nuclei using both fluorescent microscopy and flow cytometry analysis. Damage occurring after only a few hours was followed by nuclear degradation at 24 h. Flow cytometry histograms showed a reduction in G1 and G2 nuclei and an increase in degraded nuclei in NaCl-stressed roots. Salinity-induced nuclear degradation was alleviated by the addition of CaCl2.

Spatial and management factors associated with exposure of smallholder dairy cattle in Tanzania to tick-borne pathogens

A cross-sectional study of serum antibody responses of cattle to tick-borne pathogens (Theileria parva, Theileria mutans, Anaplasma marginale, Babesia bigemina and Babesia bovis) was conducted on smallholder dairy farms in Tanga and Iringa Regions of Tanzania. Seroprevalence was highest for T. parva (48% in Iringa and 23% in Tanga) and B. bigemina (43% in Iringa and 27% in Tanga) and lowest for B. bovis (12% in Iringa and 6% in Tanga). We use spatial and non-spatial models, fitted using classical and Bayesian methods, to explore risk factors associated with seroprevalence. These include both fixed effects (age, grazing history and breeding status) and random effects (farm and local spatial effects). In both regions, seroprevalence for all tick-borne pathogens increased significantly with age. Animals pasture grazed in the 3 months prior to the start of the sampling period were significantly more likely to be seropositive for Theileria spp. and Babesia spp. Pasture grazed animals were more likely to be seropositive than zero-grazed animals for A. marginale, but the relationship was weaker than that observed for the other four pathogens. This study did not detect any significant differences in seroprevalence associated with other management-related variables, including the method or frequency of acaricide application. After adjusting for age, there was weak evidence of localised (< 5 km) spatial correlation in exposure to some of the tick borne diseases. However, this was small compared with the 'farm-effect', suggesting that risk factors specific to the farm were more important than those common to the local neighbourhood. Many animals were seropositive for more than one pathogen and the correlation between exposure to the different pathogens remained after adjusting for the identified risk factors. Identifying the determinants of exposure to multiple tick-borne pathogens and characterizing local variation in risk will assist in the development of more effective control strategies for smallholder dairy farms. (c) 2005 Australian Society for Parasitology Inc. Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Paraben esters: review of recent studies of endocrine toxicity, absorption, esterase and human exposure, and discussion of potential human health risks

This toxicology update reviews research over the past four years since publication in 2004 of the first measurement of intact esters of p-hydroxybenzoic acid (parabens) in human breast cancer tissues, and the suggestion that their presence in the human body might originate from topical application of bodycare cosmetics. The presence of intact paraben esters in human body tissues has now been confirmed by independent measurements in human urine, and the ability of parabens to penetrate human skin intact without breakdown by esterases and to be absorbed systemically has been demonstrated through studies not only in vitro but also in vivo using healthy human subjects. Using a wide variety of assay systems in vitro and in vivo, the oestrogen agonist properties of parabens together with their common metabolite (p-hydroxybenzoic acid) have been extensively documented, and, in addition, the parabens have now also been shown to possess androgen antagonist activity, to act as inhibitors of sulfotransferase enzymes and to possess genotoxic activity. With the continued use of parabens in the majority of bodycare cosmetics, there is a need to carry out detailed evaluation of the potential for parabens, together with other oestrogenic and genotoxic co-formulants of bodycare cosmetics, to increase female breast cancer incidence, to interfere with male reproductive functions and to influence development of malignant melanoma which has also recently been shown to be influenced by oestrogenic stimulation. Copyright (C) 2008 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

A mathematical model of the in vitro keratinocyte response to chromium and nickel exposure

A mathematical model describing the main mechanistic processes involved in keratinocyte response to chromium and nickel has been developed and compared to experimental in vitro data. Accounting for the interactions between the metal ions and the keratinocytes, the law of mass action was used to generate ordinary differential equations which predict the time evolution and ion concentration dependency of keratinocyte viability, the amount of metal associated with the keratinocytes and the release of cytokines by the keratinocytes. Good agreement between model predictions and existing experimental data of these endpoints was observed, supporting the use of this model to explore physiochemical parameters that influence the toxicological response of keratinocytes to these two metals.

Reproduction recovery of the crustacean Daphnia magna after chronic exposure to ibuprofen

In mammals, the pharmaceutical ibuprofen (IB), a non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drug, primarily functions by reversibly inhibiting the cyclooxygenase (COX) pathway in the synthesis of eicosanoids (e.g. prostaglandins). Previous studies suggest that IB may act in a similar manner to interrupt production of eicosanoids reducing reproduction in the model crustacean Daphnia magna. On this basis withdrawal of IB should lead to the recovery of D. magna reproduction. Here we test whether the effect of IB is reversible in D. magna, as it is in mammals, by observing reproduction recovery following chronic exposure. D. magna (5-days old) were exposed to a range of IB concentrations (0, 20, 40 and 80 mg l(-1)) for 10 days followed by a 10 day recovery period in uncontaminated water. During the exposure period, individuals exposed to higher concentrations produced significantly fewer offspring. Thereafter, IB-stressed individuals produced offspring faster during recovery, having similar average population growth rates (PGR) (1.15-1.28) to controls by the end of the test. It appears that maternal daphnids are susceptible to IB during egg maturation. This is the first recorded recovery of reproduction in aquatic invertebrates that suffered reproductive inhibition during chronic exposure to a chemical stressor. Our results suggest a possible theory behind the compensatory fecundity that we referred to as 'catch-up reproduction'.

Clonal variation in acetylcholinesterase biomarkers and life history traits following OP exposure in Daphnia magna

Two clones of Daphnia magna (Standard and Ruth) were exposed for 7 days to sub-lethal concentrations of acephate (5.0 and 10.0 mg/L). Survivorship, individual growth, reproduction and the population growth rate (lambda) were evaluated over three weeks. Acetylcholinesterase (AChE) activity was measured on days 2, 7 and 21. Acephate exposure inhibited AChE activity but had no direct effect on life history (LH) traits. There was also no effect of clone on AChE activity, LH and lambda. However, a significant interaction between clone and acephate concentration was found on both fecundity and AChE inhibition at 48 h was associated with a decrease in lambda the Standard clone and an increase in lambda in clone Ruth. Therefore, our findings show that genotypic variation will influence the link between AChE activity and toxic effects at higher levels of biological organisation in D. magna. (c) 2007 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.

Aqueous peroxyl radical exposure to THP-1 cells causes glutathione loss followed by protein oxidation and cell death without increased caspase-3 activity

Protein oxidation within cells exposed to oxidative free radicals has been reported to occur in an uninhibited manner with both hydroxyl and peroxyl radicals. In contrast, THP-1 cells exposed to peroxyl radicals (ROO center dot) generated by thermo decomposition of the azo compound AAPH showed a distinct lag phase of at least 6 h, during which time no protein oxidation or cell death was observed. Glutathione appears to be the source of the lag phase as cellular levels were observed to rapidly decrease during this period. Removal of glutathione with buthionine sulfoxamine eliminated the lag phase. At the end of the lag phase there was a rapid loss of cellular MTT reducing activity and the appearance of large numbers of propidium iodide/annexin-V staining necrotic cells with only 10% of the cells appearing apoptotic (annexin-V staining only). Cytochrome c was released into the cytoplasm after 12 h of incubation but no increase in caspase-3 activity was found at any time points. We propose that the rapid loss of glutathione caused by the AAPH peroxyl radicals resulted in the loss of caspase activity and the initiation of protein oxidation. The lack of caspase-3 activity appears to have caused the cells to undergo necrosis in response to protein oxidation and other cellular damage. (c) 2007 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Joint effects of population density and toxicant exposure on population dynamics of Capitella sp I

Very few studies have analyzed the dependence of population growth rate on population density, and even fewer have considered interaction effects of density and other stresses, such as exposure to toxic chemicals. Yet without such studies we cannot know whether chemicals harmful at low density have effects on carrying capacity or, conversely, whether chemicals reducing carrying capacity are also harmful at low density, impeding a population's capacity to recover from disturbance. This study examines the combined effects of population density and a toxicant (fluoranthene) on population growth rate (pgr) and carrying capacity using the deposit-feeding polychaete Capitella sp. I as a test organism. Populations were initiated with a stable age distribution, and population density and age/size distribution were followed during a period of 28 wk. Fluoranthene (FLU), population density, and their interaction influenced population growth rate. Population growth rate declined linearly with the logarithm of population biomass, but the slope of the relationship was steeper for the control populations than for populations exposed to 50 mug FLU/(g sediment dry mass). Populations exposed to 150 mug FLU/(g sediment dry mass) went extinct after 8 wk of exposure. Despite concerns that toxicant effects would be exacerbated at high density, we found the reverse to be the case, and effects of fluoranthene on population growth rate were much reduced in the region of carrying capacity. Fluoranthene did. reduce carrying capacity by 46%, and this could haven important implications for interacting species and/or sediment biogeochemical processes.