Electromagnetic atmosphere-plasma coupling: the global atmospheric electric circuit

A description is given of the global atmospheric electric circuit operating between the Earth’s surface and the ionosphere. Attention is drawn to the huge range of horizontal and vertical spatial scales, ranging from 10−9 m to 1012 m, concerned with the many important processes at work. A similarly enormous range of time scales is involved from 10−6 s to 109 s, in the physical effects and different phenomena that need to be considered. The current flowing in the global circuit is generated by disturbed weather such as thunderstorms and electrified rain/shower clouds, mostly occurring over the Earth’s land surface. The profile of electrical conductivity up through the atmosphere, determined mainly by galactic cosmic ray ionization, is a crucial parameter of the circuit. Model simulation results on the variation of the ionospheric potential, ∼250 kV positive with respect to the Earth’s potential, following lightning discharges and sprites are summarized. Experimental results comparing global circuit variations with the neutron rate recorded at Climax, Colorado, are then discussed. Within the return (load) part of the circuit in the fair weather regions remote from the generators, charge layers exist on the upper and lower edges of extensive layer clouds; new experimental evidence for these charge layers is also reviewed. Finally, some directions for future research in the subject are suggested.

Solar influences on dynamical coupling between the stratosphere and troposphere

We use a simplified atmospheric general circulation model (AGCM) to investigate the response of the lower atmosphere to thermal perturbations in the lower stratosphere. The results show that generic heating of the lower stratosphere tends to weaken the sub-tropical jets and the tropospheric mean meridional circulations. The positions of the jets, and the extent of the Hadley cells, respond to the distribution of the stratospheric heating, with low latitude heating displacing them poleward, and uniform heating displacing them equatorward. The patterns of response to the low latitude heating are similar to those found to be associated with solar variability in previous observational data analysis, and to the effects of varying solar UV radiation in sophisticated AGCMs. In order to investigate the chain of causality involved in converting the stratospheric thermal forcing to a tropospheric climate signal we conduct an experiment which uses an ensemble of model spin-ups to analyse the time development of the response to an applied stratospheric perturbation. We find that the initial effect of the change in static stability at the tropopause is to reduce the eddy momentum flux convergence in this region. This is followed by a vertical transfer of the momentum forcing anomaly by an anomalous mean circulation to the surface, where it is partly balanced by surface stress anomalies. The unbalanced part drives the evolution of the vertically integrated zonal flow. We conclude that solar heating of the stratosphere may produce changes in the circulation of the troposphere even without any direct forcing below the tropopause. We suggest that the impact of the stratospheric changes on wave propagation is key to the mechanisms involved.

Atmospheric electricity coupling between earthquake regions and the ionosphere

We propose a mechanism to explain suggested links between seismic activity and ionospheric changes detected overhead. Specifically, we explain changes in the natural extremely low-frequency (ELF) radio noise recently observed in the topside ionosphere aboard the DEMETER satellite at night, before major earthquakes. Our mechanism utilises increased electrical conductivity of surface layer air before a major earthquake, which reduces the surface-ionosphere electrical resistance. This increases the vertical fair weather current, and (to maintain continuity of electron flow) lowers the ionosphere. Magnitudes of crucial parameters are estimated and found to be consistent with observations. Natural variability in ionospheric and atmospheric electrical properties is evaluated, and may be overcome using a hybrid detection approach. Suggested experiments to investigate the mechanism involve measuring the cut-off frequency of ELF “tweeks”, the amplitude and phase of very low frequency radio waves in the Earth–ionosphere waveguide, or medium frequency radar, incoherent scatter or rocket studies of the lower ionospheric electron density.

Review of theoretical models of electromagnetic NDT and their applications

There is an increasing interest in modelling electromagnetic methods of NDT - particularly eddy currents. A collaboration within the International Institute of Welding led to a survey intended to explain to non mathematicians the present scope of modelling. The present review commences with this survey and then points out some of the developments and some of the outstanding problems in transferring modelling into industry.

C-H and C-D interbond coupling in CHDCl2

Laser photoacoustic spectra of vapour phase CHDCl2 reveal the presence of an interaction which has been ascribed to interbond coupling between C-H and C-D local modes. The absolute value of the interbond coupling parameter for the CHD group, determined from a fit of a model local mode hamiltonian to the experimental data, is shown to be given approximately by the geometric mean of the interbond coupling parameters of the CH2 and CD2 groups recently derived from similar studies of CH2Cl2 and CD2Cl2. Such behaviour is understood in terms of a simple analysis in which kinetic coupling effects dominate. It is suggested that C-H stretch/bend Fermi resonance is responsible for some weaker features in the spectra and modelling calculations are described which allow an order of magnitude estimate of the size of the coupling parameter involved.

Effects of solar wind magnetosphere coupling recorded at different geomagnetic latitudes: Separation of directly-driven and storage/release systems

The effect on geomagnetic activity of solar wind speed, compared with that of the strength of the interplanetary magnetic field, differs with geomagnetic latitude. In this study we construct a new index based on monthly standard deviations in the H-component of the geomagnetic field for all geomagnetic latitudes. We demonstrate that for this index the response at auroral regions correlates best with interplanetary coupling functions which include the solar wind speed while mid- and low-latitude regions respond to variations in the interplanetary magnetic field strength. These results are used to isolate the responsible geomagnetic current systems.

Sonogashira coupling on an extended gold surface in vacuo: reaction of phenylacetylene with iodobenzene on Au(111)

Temperature-programmed reaction measurements supported by scanning tunneling microscopy have shown that phenylacetylene and iodobenzene react on smooth Au(111) under vacuum conditions to yield biphenyl and diphenyldiacetylene, the result of homocoupling of the reactant molecules. They also produce diphenylacetylene, the result of Sonogashira cross-coupling, prototypical of a class of reactions that are of paramount importance in synthetic organic chemistry and whose mechanism remains controversial. Roughened Au(111) is completely inert toward all three reactions, indicating that the availability of crystallographically well-defined adsorption sites is crucially important. High-resolution X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy and near-edge X-ray absorption fine structure spectroscopy show that the reactants are initially present as intact, essentially flat-lying molecules and that the temperature threshold for Sonogashira coupling coincides with that for C−I bond scission in the iodobenzene reactant. The fractional-order kinetics and low temperature associated with desorption of the Sonogashira product suggest that the reaction occurs at the boundaries of islands of adsorbed reactants and that its appearance in the gas phase is rate-limited by the surface reaction. These findings demonstrate unambiguously and for the first time that this heterogeneous cross-coupling chemistry is an intrinsic property of extended, metallic pure gold surfaces: no other species, including solvent molecules, basic or charged (ionic) species are necessary to mediate the process.

Functional coupling of the human dopamine D-2 receptor with G alpha(i1), G alpha(i2), G alpha(i3) and G alpha(o) G proteins: evidence for agonist regulation of G protein selectivity

1 The human dopamine D-2long (D-2L) receptor was expressed with four different G proteins in Sf9 cells using the baculovirus expression system. When co-expressed with G(i)/G(o) G proteins (G(i1)alpha, G(i2)alpha, G(i3)alpha, or G(o)alpha, plus Gbeta(1) and Ggamma(2)) the receptor displayed a high-affinity binding site for the agonists (dopamine and NPA), which was sensitive to GTP (100 mum), demonstrating interaction between the receptor and the different G proteins. 2 The receptor to G protein ratio (R: G ratio) was evaluated using [H-3]-spiperone saturation binding (R) and [S-35]-GTPgammaS saturation binding (G). R: G ratios of 1: 12, 1: 3, 1: 14 and 1: 5 were found for G(i1), G(i2), G(i3), and Go preparations, respectively. However, when R:G ratios of 1:2 and 1: 12 were compared for G(i2) and G(o), no difference was found for the stimulation of [S-35]-GTPgammaS binding. 3 Several agonists were tested for their ability to stimulate [S-35]-GTPgammaS binding to membranes co-expressing the receptor and various G proteins. All the compounds tested showed agonist activity in preparations expressing G(i3) and G(o). However, for G(i2) and G(i1) preparations, compounds such as S-(-)-3-PPP and p-tyramine were unable to stimulate [S-35]-GTPyS binding. 4 Most of the compounds showed higher relative efficacies (compared to dopamine) and higher potencies in the preparation expressing G(o). Comparison of the effects of different agonists in the different preparations showed that each agonist differentially activates the four G proteins. 5 We conclude that the degree of selectivity of G protein activation by the D-2L receptor can depend on the conformation of the receptor stabilised by an agonist.

Double coupling reactions of 3,4-bis(stannyl)furanone: facile preparation of diaryl- and dibenzylfuranones

The palladium-catalyzed cross-coupling reaction of 3,4-bis(tributylstannyl)furan-2(5H)-one using chelating ligand or polar solvent gives mixtures of single and double coupled products, even when one equivalent of halide coupling partner is used. After optimization, the double coupling reaction was shown to be general, with the use of two equivalents of aryl iodides giving 3,4-disubstituted furanones, The reaction using benzyl bromides proceeds at lower temperatures than the corresponding coupling using aryl iodides, giving dibenzylfuranones. The methodology has been exemplified in a synthesis of (+/-)-hinokinin.

Synthesis, structure, and electrochemical properties of a family of 2-(arylazo)phenolate complexes of ruthenium with unusual C-C coupling and N=Ncleavage

Reaction of 2-(4'-R-phenylazo)-4-methylphenols (R = OCH3, CH3, H, Cl, and NO2) with [Ru(dmso)(4)Cl-2] affords a family of five ruthenium(III) complexes, containing a 2-(arylazo)phenolate ligand forming a six-membered chelate ring and a tetradentate ligand formed from two 2-(arylazo) phenols via an unusual C-C coupling linki.ng the two ortho carbons of the phenyl rings in the arylazo fragment. A similar reaction with 2-(2'-methylphenylazo)-4-methylphenol with [Ru(dmso)(4)Cl-2] has afforded a similar complex, in which one 2-(2'-methylphenylazo)-4-methylphenolate ligand is coordinated forming a six-membered chelate ring, and the other two ligands have undergone the C-C coupling reaction, and the coupled species is coordinated as a tetradentate ligand forming a five-membered N,O-chelate ring, a nine-membered N,N-chelate ring, and another five-membered chelate ring. Reaction of 2-(2',6'-dimethylphenylazo)-4-methylphenol with [Ru(dmso)(4)Cl-2] has afforded a complex in which two 2-(2',6'-dimethylphenylazo)-4-methylphenols are coordinated as bidentate N,O-donors forming five- and six-membered chelate rings, while the third one has undergone cleavage across the N=N bond, and the phenolate fragment, thus generated, remains coordinated to the metal center in the iminosemiquinonate form. Structures of four selected complexes have been determined by X-ray crystallography. The first six complexes are one-electron paramagnetic and show rhombic ESR spectra. The last complex is diamagnetic and shows characteristic H-1 NMR signals. All the complexes show intense charge-transfer transitions in the visible region and a Ru(III)-Ru(IV) oxidation on the positive side of SCE and a Ru(III)-Ru(II) reduction on the negative side.

Morpholinone mediated oxazolone-free C-terminus amide coupling permitting a convergent strategy for peptide synthesis

3-Substituted-5-phenylmorpholinones have been demonstrated to act as N-protected C-terminus activated alpha-amino acids capable of undergoing solution phase N-terminus peptide extension following standard coupling procedures. The N-acylated morpholinones do not undergo epimerisation of the stereocentre of the C-terminus amino acid residue as oxazolone formation is sterically prevented, although C-terminus peptide coupling is still possible. This convergent approach to peptide synthesis is exemplified by the preparation of L-ala-L-ala-L-ala and L-ala-D-ala-L-ala. Copyright (c) 2008 European Peptide Society and John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Synthesis and properties of polyaromatic dendrimers possessing a repetitive amide-ester coupling sequence

A series of novel polyaromatic dendrimers that feature tris-(2-ethylamino)amine as the central core unit has been synthesized up to the third generation by employing a convergent growth strategy. The building blocks 1,3-diamino-2-hydroxypropane and 4-carboxybenzaldehyde were used for dendron construction, a process that involved the cyclic repetition of esterification, oxidation and selective amidation steps. Molecular modelling of this class of dendrimers has been used to predict potential solution state conformations employing molecular mechanics and molecular dynamic simulations. In addition, the results of preliminary metal binding studies using the first generation dendritic system are also outlined. (C) 2003 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved.