Intraclonal variability in Daphnia acetylcholinesterase activity: The implications for its applicability as a biomarker

The relationship between individual growth and acetylcholinesterase (AChE).activity was evaluated for Daphnia magna. Analysis on the influence of two different culture media on baseline AChE activity was performed with Daphnia similis. The results indicated an inverse relationship between D. magna body length and AChE activity. An increase in total protein, which was not proportional to an increase in the rate of the substrate hydrolysis (Delta absorbance/min), seems to be the reason for this inverse size versus AChE activity relationship. Therefore, toxicants such as phenobarbital, which affect protein and size but not AChE activity directly, have an overall affect on AChE activity. In contrast, the AChE inhibitor parathion altered AChE activity but not protein. Culture medium also had a significant affect on AChE activity in D. similis. Changes in total protein seem to be the main reason for the variations in baseline AChE activity in Daphnia observed in the different evaluations performed in this work. Therefore, AChE activity in Daphnia must be interpreted carefully, and variations related to changes in total protein must be taken into account when applying this enzyme as a biomarker in biological monitoring.

Linking molecular and population stress responses in Daphnia magna exposed to cadmium

DNA microarrays can be used to measure environmental stress responses. If they are to be predictive of environmental impact, we need to determine if altered gene expression translates into negative impacts on individuals and populations. A large cDNA microarray (14000 spots) was created to measure molecular stress responses to cadmium in Daphnia magna,the most widely used aquatic indicator species, and relate responses to population growth rate (pgr). We used the array to detect differences in the transcription of genes in juvenile D. magna (24 h old) after 24 h exposure to a control and three cadmium concentrations (6, 20, and 37 mu g Cd2+ L-1). Stress responses at the population level were estimated following a further 8 days exposure. Pgr was approximately linear negative with increasing cadmium concentration over this range. The microarray profile of gene expression in response to acute cadmium exposure begins to provide an overview of the molecular responses of D. magna, especially in relation to growth and development. Of the responding genes, 29% were involved with metabolism including carbohydrate, fat and peptide metabolism, and energy production, 31% were involved with transcription/translation, while 40% of responding genes were associated with cellular processes like growth and moulting, ion transport, and general stress responses (which included oxidative stress). Our production and application of a large Daphnia magna microarray has shown that measured gene responses can be logically linked to the impact of a toxicant such as cadmium on somatic growth and development, and consequently pgr.

Reproduction recovery of the crustacean Daphnia magna after chronic exposure to ibuprofen

In mammals, the pharmaceutical ibuprofen (IB), a non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drug, primarily functions by reversibly inhibiting the cyclooxygenase (COX) pathway in the synthesis of eicosanoids (e.g. prostaglandins). Previous studies suggest that IB may act in a similar manner to interrupt production of eicosanoids reducing reproduction in the model crustacean Daphnia magna. On this basis withdrawal of IB should lead to the recovery of D. magna reproduction. Here we test whether the effect of IB is reversible in D. magna, as it is in mammals, by observing reproduction recovery following chronic exposure. D. magna (5-days old) were exposed to a range of IB concentrations (0, 20, 40 and 80 mg l(-1)) for 10 days followed by a 10 day recovery period in uncontaminated water. During the exposure period, individuals exposed to higher concentrations produced significantly fewer offspring. Thereafter, IB-stressed individuals produced offspring faster during recovery, having similar average population growth rates (PGR) (1.15-1.28) to controls by the end of the test. It appears that maternal daphnids are susceptible to IB during egg maturation. This is the first recorded recovery of reproduction in aquatic invertebrates that suffered reproductive inhibition during chronic exposure to a chemical stressor. Our results suggest a possible theory behind the compensatory fecundity that we referred to as 'catch-up reproduction'.

Outlining eicosanoid biosynthesis in the crustacean Daphnia

Background: Eicosanoids are biologically active, oxygenated metabolites of three C20 polyunsaturated fatty acids. They act as signalling molecules within the autocrine or paracrine system in both vertebrates and invertebrates mainly functioning as important mediators in reproduction, the immune system and ion transport. The biosynthesis of eicosanoids has been intensively studied in mammals and it is known that they are synthesised from the fatty acid, arachidonic acid, through either the cyclooxygenase (COX) pathway; the lipoxygenase (LOX) pathway; or the cytochrome P450 epoxygenase pathway. However, little is still known about the synthesis and structure of the pathway in invertebrates. Results: Here, we show transcriptomic evidence from Daphnia magna (Crustacea: Branchiopoda) together with a bioinformatic analysis of the D. pulex genome providing insight on the role of eicosanoids in these crustaceans as well as outlining a putative pathway of eicosanoid biosynthesis. Daphnia appear only to have one copy of the gene encoding the key enzyme COX, and phylogenetic analysis reveals that the predicted protein sequence of Daphnia COX clusters with other invertebrates. There is no current evidence of an epoxygenase pathway in Daphnia; however, LOX products are most certainly synthesised in daphnids. Conclusion: We have outlined the structure of eicosanoid biosynthesis in Daphnia, a key genus in freshwater ecosystems. Improved knowledge of the function and synthesis of eicosanoids in Daphnia and other invertebrates could have important implications for several areas within ecology. This provisional overview of daphnid eicosanoid biosynthesis provides a guide on where to focus future research activities in this area.

Systems biology meets stress ecology: linking molecular and organismal stress responses in Daphnia magna

Background: Ibuprofen and other nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs have been designed to interrupt eicosanoid metabolism in mammals, but little is known of how they affect nontarget organisms. Here we report a systems biology study that simultaneously describes the transcriptomic and phenotypic stress responses of the model crustacean Daphnia magna after exposure to ibuprofen. Results: Our findings reveal intriguing similarities in the mode of action of ibuprofen between vertebrates and invertebrates, and they suggest that ibuprofen has a targeted impact on reproduction at the molecular, organismal, and population level in daphnids. Microarray expression and temporal real-time quantitative PCR profiles of key genes suggest early ibuprofen interruption of crustacean eicosanoid metabolism, which appears to disrupt signal transduction affecting juvenile hormone metabolism and oogenesis. Conclusion: Combining molecular and organismal stress responses provides a guide to possible chronic consequences of environmental stress for population health. This could improve current environmental risk assessment by providing an early indication of the need for higher tier testing. Our study demonstrates the advantages of a systems approach to stress ecology, in which Daphnia will probably play a major role.

The ecological niche of Daphnia magna characterized using population growth rate

The concept of an organism's niche is central to ecological theory, but an operational definition is needed that allows both its experimental delineation and interpretation of field distributions of the species. Here we use population growth rate (hereafter, pgr) to de. ne the niche as the set of points in niche space where pgr. 0. If there are just two axes to the niche space, their relationship to pgr can be pictured as a contour map in which pgr varies along the axes in the same way that the height of land above sea level varies with latitude and longitude. In laboratory experiments we measured the pgr of Daphnia magna over a grid of values of pH and Ca2+, and so defined its "laboratory niche'' in pH-Ca2+ space. The position of the laboratory niche boundary suggests that population persistence is only possible above 0.5 mg Ca2+/L and between pH 5.75 and pH 9, though more Ca2+ is needed at lower pH values. To see how well the measured niche predicts the field distribution of D. magna, we examined relevant field data from 422 sites in England and Wales. Of the 58 colonized water bodies, 56 lay within the laboratory niche. Very few of the sites near the niche boundary were colonized, probably because pgr there is so low that populations are vulnerable to extinction by other factors. Our study shows how the niche can be quantified and used to predict field distributions successfully.

Clonal variation in acetylcholinesterase biomarkers and life history traits following OP exposure in Daphnia magna

Two clones of Daphnia magna (Standard and Ruth) were exposed for 7 days to sub-lethal concentrations of acephate (5.0 and 10.0 mg/L). Survivorship, individual growth, reproduction and the population growth rate (lambda) were evaluated over three weeks. Acetylcholinesterase (AChE) activity was measured on days 2, 7 and 21. Acephate exposure inhibited AChE activity but had no direct effect on life history (LH) traits. There was also no effect of clone on AChE activity, LH and lambda. However, a significant interaction between clone and acephate concentration was found on both fecundity and AChE inhibition at 48 h was associated with a decrease in lambda the Standard clone and an increase in lambda in clone Ruth. Therefore, our findings show that genotypic variation will influence the link between AChE activity and toxic effects at higher levels of biological organisation in D. magna. (c) 2007 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.

Chronic toxicity of ibuprofen to Daphnia magna: Effects on life history traits and population dynamics

The non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drug (NSAID) ibuprofen (IB) is a widely used pharmaceutical that can be found in several freshwater ecosystems. Acute toxicity studies with Daphnia magna suggest that the 48 h EC50 (immobilisation) is 10-100 mg IB l(-1). However, there are currently no chronic IB toxicity dataon arthropod populations, and the aquatic life impacts of such analgesic drugs are still undefined. We performed a 14-day exposure of D. magna to IB as a model compound (concentration range: 0, 20, 40 and 80 mg IB l(-1)) measuring chronic effects on life history traits and population performance. Population growth rate was significantly reduced at all IB concentrations, although survival was only affected at 80 mg IB l(-1). Reproduction, however, was affected at lower concentrations of IB (14-day EC50 of 13.4 mg IB l(-1)), and was completely inhibited at the highest test concentration. The results from this study indicate that the long-term crustacean population consequences of a chronic IB exposure at environmentally realistic concentrations (ng l(-1) to mu g l(-1)) would most likely be of minor importance. We discuss our results in relation to recent genomic studies, which suggest that the potential mechanism of toxicity in Daphnia is similar to the mode of action in mammals, where IB inhibits eicosanoid biosynthesis. (C) 2007 Elsevier Ireland Ltd. All rights reserved.

Expression of target and reference genes in Daphnia magna exposed to ibuprofen

Background: Transcriptomic techniques are now being applied in ecotoxicology and toxicology to measure the impact of stressors and develop understanding of mechanisms of toxicity. Microarray technology in particular offers the potential to measure thousands of gene responses simultaneously. However, it is important that microarrays responses should be validated, at least initially, using real-time quantitative polymerase chain reaction (QPCR). The accurate measurement of target gene expression requires normalisation to an invariant internal control e. g., total RNA or reference genes. Reference genes are preferable, as they control for variation inherent in the cDNA synthesis and PCR. However, reference gene expression can vary between tissues and experimental conditions, which makes it crucial to validate them prior to application. Results: We evaluated 10 candidate reference genes for QPCR in Daphnia magna following a 24 h exposure to the non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drug (NSAID) ibuprofen (IB) at 0, 20, 40 and 80 mg IB l(-1). Six of the 10 candidates appeared suitable for use as reference genes. As a robust approach, we used a combination normalisation factor (NF), calculated using the geNorm application, based on the geometric mean of three selected reference genes: glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase, ubiquitin conjugating enzyme and actin. The effects of normalisation are illustrated using as target gene leukotriene B4 12-hydroxydehydrogenase (Ltb4dh), which was upregulated following 24 h exposure to 63-81 mg IB l(-1). Conclusions: As anticipated, use of the NF clarified the response of Ltb4dh in daphnids exposed to sublethal levels of ibuprofen. Our findings emphasise the importance in toxicogenomics of finding and applying invariant internal QPCR control(s) relevant to the study conditions.

The use of image analysis to estimate population growth rate in Daphnia magna

1. Population growth rate (PGR) is central to the theory of population ecology and is crucial for projecting population trends in conservation biology, pest management and wildlife harvesting. Furthermore, PGR is increasingly used to assess the effects of stressors. Image analysis that can automatically count and measure photographed individuals offers a potential methodology for estimating PGR. 2. This study evaluated two ways in which the PGR of Daphnia magna, exposed to different stressors, can be estimated using an image analysis system. The first method estimated PGR as the ratio of counts of individuals obtained at two different times, while the second method estimated PGR as the ratio of population sizes at two different times, where size is measured by the sum of the individuals' surface areas, i.e. total population surface area. This method is attractive if surface area is correlated with reproductive value (RV), as it is for D. magna, because of the theoretical result that PGR is the rate at which the population RV increases. 3. The image analysis system proved reliable and reproducible in counting populations of up to 440 individuals in 5 L of water. Image counts correlated well with manual counts but with a systematic underestimate of about 30%. This does not affect accuracy when estimating PGR as the ratio of two counts. Area estimates of PGR correlated well with count estimates, but were systematically higher, possibly reflecting their greater accuracy in the study situation. 4. Analysis of relevant scenarios suggested the correlation between RV and body size will generally be good for organisms in which fecundity correlates with body size. In these circumstances, area estimation of PGR is theoretically better than count estimation. 5. Synthesis and applications. There are both theoretical and practical advantages to area estimation of population growth rate when individuals' reproductive values are consistently well correlated with their surface areas. Because stressors may affect both the number and quality of individuals, area estimation of population growth rate should improve the accuracy of predicting stress impacts at the population level.

A comparative study on the relationship between acetyl cholinesterase activity and acute toxicity in Daphnia magna exposed to anticholinesterase insecticides

Acetylcholinesterase (AChE) activity was measured in Daphnia magna that had been exposed to four organophosphates (OPs; parathion, chlorpyrifos, malathion, and acephate) and one carbamate (propoxur) for 48 h. These results were related to acute toxicity (median effective concentration [EC50] for immobility). For the four OPs, the EC50s were 7.03 pM, 3.17 pM, 10.56 pM, and 309.82 muM, respectively. The EC50 for propoxur was 449.90 pM. Reduction in AChE activity was directly related to an increase in immobility in all chemicals tested. However, the ratio between the EC50 and the AChE median inhibiting concentration ranged from 0.31 to 0.90. A 50% reduction in AChE activity generally was associated with detrimental effects on mobility. However, for acephate, high levels of AChE inhibition (70%) were observed in very low concentrations and were not associated with immobility. In addition, increasing the concentration of acephate further had a slight negative effect oil AChE activity but a Strong detrimental effect on mobility. Binding sites other than AChE possibly are involved in acephate toxicity to D. magna. Our findings demonstrate different associations between AChE inhibition and toxicity when different chemicals are compared. Therefore, the value of using AChE activity as a biomarker in D. magna will be dependent on the chemical tested.

Haem peroxidase activity in Daphnia magna: A biomarker for sub-lethal toxicity assessments of kerosene-contaminated groundwater

A novel biomarker was developed in Daphnia magna to detect organic pollution in groundwater. The haem peroxidase assay, which is an indirect means of measuring oxidase activity, was particularly sensitive to kerosene contamination. Exposure to sub-lethal concentrations of kerosene-contaminated groundwater resulted in a haem peroxidase activity increase by dose with a two-fold activity peak at 25%. Reproduction in D. magna remained unimpaired when exposed to concentrations below 25% for 21 days, and a decline in fecundity was only observed at concentrations above the peak in enzyme activity. The measurement of haem peroxidase activity in D. magna detected sublethal effects of kerosene in just 24 h, whilst offering information on the health status of the organisms. The biomarker may be useful in determining concentrations above which detrimental effects would occur from long-term exposure for fuel hydrocarbons. Moreover, this novel assay detects exposure to chemicals in samples that would normally be classified as non-toxic by acute toxicity tests.

Gene transcription in Daphnia magna: effects of acute exposure to a carbamate insecticide and an acetanilide herbicide.

Daphnia magna is a key invertebrate in the freshwater environment and is used widely as a model in ecotoxicological measurements and risk assessment. Understanding the genomic responses of D. magna to chemical challenges will be of value to regulatory authorities worldwide. Here we exposed D. magna to the insecticide methomyl and the herbicide propanil to compare phenotypic effects with changes in mRNA expression levels. Both pesticides are found in drainage ditches and surface water bodies standing adjacent to crops. Methomyl, a carbamate insecticide widely used in agriculture, inhibits acetylcholinesterase, a key enzyme in nerve transmission. Propanil, an acetanilide herbicide, is used to control grass and broad-leaf weeds. The phenotypic effects of single doses of each chemical were evaluated using a standard immobilisation assay. Immobilisation was linked to global mRNA expression levels using the previously estimated 48h-EC(1)s, followed by hybridization to a cDNA microarray with more than 13,000 redundant cDNA clones representing >5000 unique genes. Following exposure to methomyl and propanil, differential expression was found for 624 and 551 cDNAs, respectively (one-way ANOVA with Bonferroni correction, P

A comparative study on the relationship between acetylcholinesterase activity and acute toxicity in Daphnia magna exposed to anticholinesterase insecticides

Acetylcholinesterase (AChE) activity was measured in Daphnia magna that had been exposed to four organophosphates (OPs; parathion, chlorpyrifos, malathion, and acephate) and one carbamate (propoxur) for 48 h. These results were related to acute toxicity (median effective concentration [EC50] for immobility). For the four OPs, the EC50s were 7.03 pM, 3.17 pM, 10.56 pM, and 309.82 microM, respectively. The EC50 for propoxur was 449.90 pM. Reduction in AChE activity was directly related to an increase in immobility in all chemicals tested. However, the ratio between the EC50 and the AChE median inhibiting concentration ranged from 0.31 to 0.90. A 50% reduction in AChE activity generally was associated with detrimental effects on mobility. However, for acephate, high levels of AChE inhibition (70%) were observed in very low concentrations and were not associated with immobility. In addition, increasing the concentration of acephate further had a slight negative effect on AChE activity but a strong detrimental effect on mobility. Binding sites other than AChE possibly are involved in acephate toxicity to D. magna. Our findings demonstrate different associations between AChE inhibition and toxicity when different chemicals are compared. Therefore, the value of using AChE activity as a biomarker in D. magna will be dependent on the chemical tested.