Pb-210-Ra-226 and Ra-228-Th-232 systematics in young arc lavas: implications for magma degassing and ascent rates

New data show that island arc rocks have (Pb-210/Ra-226)(o) ratios which range from as low as 0.24 up to 2.88. In contrast, (Ra-22S/Th-232) appears always within error of I suggesting that the large Ra-226-excesses observed in arc rocks were generated more than 30 years ago. This places a maximum estimate on melt ascent velocities of around 4000 m/year and provides further confidence that the Ra-226 excesses reflect deep (source) processes rather than shallow level alteration or seawater contamination. Conversely, partial melting must have occurred more than 30 years prior to eruption. The Pb-210 deficits are most readily explained by protracted magma degassing. Using published numerical models, the data suggest that degassing occurred continuously for periods up to several decades just prior to eruption but no link with eruption periodicity was found. Longer periods are required if degassing is discontinuous, less than 100% efficient or if magma is recharged or stored after degassing. The long durations suggest much of this degassing occurs at depth with implications for the formation of hydrothermal and copper-porphyry systems. A suite of lavas erupted in 1985-1986 from Sangeang Api volcano in the Sunda arc are characterised by deficits of Pb-210 relative to Ra-226 from which 6-8 years of continuous Rn-222 degassing would be inferred from recent numerical models. These data also form a linear (Pb-210)/Pb-(Ra-226)/Pb array which might be interpreted as a 71-year isochron. However, the array passes through the origin suggesting displacement downwards from the equiline in response to degassing and so the slope of the array is inferred not to have any age significance. Simple modelling shows that the range of (Ra-226)/Pb ratios requires thousands of years to develop consistent with differentiation occurring in response to cooling at the base of the crust. Thus, degassing post-dated, and was not responsible for magma differentiation. The formation, migration and extraction of gas bubbles must be extremely efficient in mafic magma whereas the higher viscosity of more siliceous magmas retards the process and can lead to Pb-210 excesses. A possible negative correlation between (Pb-210/Ra-226)(o) and SO2 emission rate requires further testing but may have implications for future eruptions. (C) 2004 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Pb-210-Ra-226 and Ra-228-Th-232 systematics in young arc lavas: implications for magma degassing and ascent rates

New data show that island arc rocks have (Pb-210/Ra-226)(o) ratios which range from as low as 0.24 up to 2.88. In contrast, (Ra-22S/Th-232) appears always within error of I suggesting that the large Ra-226-excesses observed in arc rocks were generated more than 30 years ago. This places a maximum estimate on melt ascent velocities of around 4000 m/year and provides further confidence that the Ra-226 excesses reflect deep (source) processes rather than shallow level alteration or seawater contamination. Conversely, partial melting must have occurred more than 30 years prior to eruption. The Pb-210 deficits are most readily explained by protracted magma degassing. Using published numerical models, the data suggest that degassing occurred continuously for periods up to several decades just prior to eruption but no link with eruption periodicity was found. Longer periods are required if degassing is discontinuous, less than 100% efficient or if magma is recharged or stored after degassing. The long durations suggest much of this degassing occurs at depth with implications for the formation of hydrothermal and copper-porphyry systems. A suite of lavas erupted in 1985-1986 from Sangeang Api volcano in the Sunda arc are characterised by deficits of Pb-210 relative to Ra-226 from which 6-8 years of continuous Rn-222 degassing would be inferred from recent numerical models. These data also form a linear (Pb-210)/Pb-(Ra-226)/Pb array which might be interpreted as a 71-year isochron. However, the array passes through the origin suggesting displacement downwards from the equiline in response to degassing and so the slope of the array is inferred not to have any age significance. Simple modelling shows that the range of (Ra-226)/Pb ratios requires thousands of years to develop consistent with differentiation occurring in response to cooling at the base of the crust. Thus, degassing post-dated, and was not responsible for magma differentiation. The formation, migration and extraction of gas bubbles must be extremely efficient in mafic magma whereas the higher viscosity of more siliceous magmas retards the process and can lead to Pb-210 excesses. A possible negative correlation between (Pb-210/Ra-226)(o) and SO2 emission rate requires further testing but may have implications for future eruptions. (C) 2004 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Origin of the Parry arc

Laboratory experiments to determine the preferred orientation of free-falling hexagonal prisms were performed at Reynolds numbers appropriate to falling ice crystals in the atmosphere. Hexagonal plates orient with their c axis vertical for aspect ratios < 0.9, whilst hexagonal columns fall with their c axis horizontal. A secondary alignment is also observed: regular hexagonal columns fall preferentially with two prism facets aligned vertically and not horizontally – the latter scenario was previously assumed to be responsible for the rare Parry arc. However, if the column is made scalene in its cross-section, it can orient such that a pair of prism facets is horizontal. This finding indicates that the development of scalene crystals may be key to the production of certain ice-crystal optical phenomena

Structural transformation of graphite by arc-discharge

The formation of novel structures by the passage of an electric current through graphite is described. These structures apparently consist of hollow three-dimensional graphitic shells bounded by curved and faceted planes, typically made up of two graphene layers. The curved structures were frequently decorated with nano-scale carbon particles, or short nanotubes. In some cases, nanotubes were found to be seamlessly connected to the thin shells, indicating that the formation of the shells and the nanotubes is intimately connected. Small nanotubes or nanoparticles were also sometimes found encapsulated inside the hollow structures, while fullerene-like particles were often seen attached to the outside surfaces. With their high surface areas and structural perfection, the new carbon structures may have applications as anodes of lithium ion batteries or as components of composite materials.

Optical characterization of the growth and spatial structure of a substorm onset arc

We present a detailed case study of the characteristics of auroral forms that constitute the first ionospheric signatures of substorm expansion phase onset. Analysis of the optical frequency and along-arc (azimuthal) wave number spectra provides the strongest constraint to date on the potential mechanisms and instabilities in the near-Earth magnetosphere that accompany auroral onset and which precede poleward arc expansion and auroral breakup. We evaluate the frequency and growth rates of the auroral forms as a function of azimuthal wave number to determine whether these wave characteristics are consistent with current models of the substorm onset mechanism. We find that the frequency, spatial scales, and growth rates of the auroral forms are most consistent with the cross-field current instability or a ballooning instability, most likely triggered close to the inner edge of the ion plasma sheet. This result is supportive of a near-Earth plasma sheet initiation of the substorm expansion phase. We also present evidence that the frequency and phase characteristics of the auroral undulations may be generated via resonant processes operating along the geomagnetic field. Our observations provide the most powerful constraint to date on the ionospheric manifestation of the physical processes operating during the first few minutes around auroral substorm onset.

Novel bilayer graphene structures produced by arc-discharge

A new form of carbon is described, which consists of hollow, three-dimensional shells bounded by bilayer graphene. The new carbon is produced very simply, by passing a current through graphite rods in a commercial arc-evaporation unit. Characterisation of the carbon using high resolution transmission electron microscopy is described, and the possible formation mechanism discussed.

Statistical characterisation of the growth and spatial scales of the substorm onset arc

We present the first multi-event study of the spatial and temporal structuring of the aurora to provide statistical evidence of the near-Earth plasma instability which causes the substorm onset arc. Using data from ground-based auroral imagers, we study repeatable signatures of along-arc auroral beads, which are thought to represent the ionospheric projection of magnetospheric instability in the near-Earth plasma sheet. We show that the growth and spatial scales of these wave-like fluctuations are similar across multiple events, indicating that each sudden auroral brightening has a common explanation. We find statistically that growth rates for auroral beads peak at low wavenumber with the most unstable spatial scales mapping to an azimuthal wavelength λ≈1700 − 2500 km in the equatorial magnetosphere at around 9-12 RE. We compare growth rates and spatial scales with a range of theoretical predictions of magnetotail instabilities, including the cross-field current instability and the shear-flow ballooning instability. We conclude that, although the cross-field current instability can generate similar magnitude of growth rates, the range of unstable wavenumbers indicates that the shear-flow ballooning instability is the most likely explanation for our observations.