Regulation of phospholipases C and D in rat ventricular myocytes: stimulation by endothelin-1, bradykinin and phenylephrine.

The physiological activator of protein kinase C (PKC), diacylglycerol, is formed by hydrolysis of phosphoinositides (PI) by phospholipase C (PLC) or phosphatidylcholine by phospholipase D (PLD). We have measured activation of these phospholipases by endothelin-1 (ET-1), bradykinin (BK), or phenylephrine (PE) in ventricular myocytes cultured from neonatal rat. The stimulation of PI hydrolysis after 10 min by 0.1 microM ET-1 (about 12-fold) was much greater than for BK or PE (each about four-fold), and did not correlate with translocation of nPKC delta or nPKC epsilon (Clerk A. Bogoyevitch MA. Andersson MB. Sugden PH, 1994. J Biol Chem 269: 32848-32857: Clerk A, Gillespie-Brown J, Fuller SJ, Sugden PH, 1996. Biochem J 317: 109-118). However, ET-1 and BK stimulated a similar rapid increase in [3H]InsP, formation (< 30 s), which was much greater than that seen with PE. This early phase correlated with PKC translocation. Acute or chronic exposure to 12-O-tetradecanoylphorbol-13-acetate (TPA) or treatment with Ro-31-8220 showed that the stimulation of PI hydrolysis by PE, but not ET-1 or BK, was inhibited by activation of PKC. Furthermore, ET-1 and BK heterologously desensitized the stimulation of PI hydrolysis by PE, ET-1 or BK homologously uncoupled their own receptors from [3H]InsP3 formation, but there was no evidence of heterologous desensitization with these two agonists. Anomalously, chronic exposure to TPA increased the stimulation of PI hydrolysis by BK, but this probably resulted from an increase in BK receptor density. PLD was also rapidly activated by TPA. ET-1, BK or PE. Experiments with Ro-31-8220 showed that the stimulation of PLD by ET-1 and BK was mediated through activation of PKC. We discuss the characteristics of the activation of PI hydrolysis and PLD by ET-1, BK, and PE with respect to the translocation of PKC.

Stimulation of multiple mitogen-activated protein kinase sub-families by oxidative stress and phosphorylation of the small heat shock protein, HSP25/27, in neonatal ventricular myocytes.

We investigated the activation of three subfamilies of mitogen-activated protein kinases (MAPKs), namely the stress-activated protein kinases/c-Jun N-terminal kinases (SAPKs/JNKs), the extracellularly responsive kinases (ERKs) and p38-MAPK, by oxidative stress as exemplified by H2O2 in primary cultures of neonatal rat ventricular myocytes. The 46 and 54 kDa species of SAPKs/JNKs were activated 5- and 10-fold, respectively, by 0.1 mM H2O2 (the maximally effective concentration). Maximal activation occurred at 15-30 min, but was still detectable after 2 h. Both ERK1 and ERK2 were activated 16-fold by 0.1 mM H2O2 with a similar time course to the SAPKs/JNKs, and this was comparable with their activation by 1 microM PMA, the most powerful activator of ERKs that we have so far identified in these cells. The activation of ERKs by H2O2 was inhibited by PD98059, which inhibits the activation of MAPK (or ERK) kinases, and by the protein kinase C (PKC) inhibitor, GF109203X. ERK activation was also inhibited by down-regulation of PMA-sensitive PKC isoforms. p38-MAPK was activated by 0.1 mM H2O2 as shown by an increase in its phosphorylation. However, maximal phosphorylation (activation) was more rapid (<5 min) than for the SAPKs/JNKs or the ERKs. We studied the downstream consequences of p38-MAPK activation by examining activation of MAPK-activated protein kinase 2 (MAPKAPK2) and phosphorylation of the MAPKAPK2 substrate, the small heat shock protein HSP25/27. As with p38-MAPK, MAPKAPK2 was rapidly activated (maximal within 5 min) by 0.1 mM H2O2. This activation was abolished by 10 microM SB203580, a selective inhibitor of certain p38-MAPK isoforms. The phosphorylation of HSP25/27 rapidly followed activation of MAPKAPK2 and was also inhibited by SB203580. Phosphorylation of HSP25/27 was associated with a decrease in its aggregation state. These data indicate that oxidative stress is a powerful activator of all three MAPK subfamilies in neonatal rat ventricular myocytes. Activation of all three MAPKs has been associated with the development of the hypertrophic phenotype. However, stimulation of p38-MAPK and the consequent phosphorylation of HSP25/27 may also be important in cardioprotection.

Pro-inflammatory cytokines stimulate mitogen-activated protein kinase subfamilies, increase phosphorylation of c-Jun and ATF2 and upregulate c-Jun protein in neonatal rat ventricular myocytes.

Pro-inflammatory cytokines may be important in the pathophysiological responses of the heart. We investigated the activation of the three mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) subfamilies ¿c-Jun N-terminal kinases (JNKs), p38-MAPKs and extracellularly-responsive kinases (ERKs) by interleukin-1 beta (IL-1 beta) or tumour necrosis factor alpha (TNF alpha) in primary cultures of myocytes isolated from neonatal rat ventricles. Both cytokines stimulated a rapid (maximal within 10 min) increase in JNK activity. Although activation of JNKs by IL-1 beta was transient returning to control values within 1 h, the response to TNF alpha was sustained. IL-1 beta and TNF alpha also stimulated p38-MAPK phosphorylation, but the response to IL-1 beta was consistently greater than TNF alpha. Both cytokines activated ERKs, but to a lesser degree than that induced by phorbol esters. The transcription factors, c-Jun and ATF2, are phosphorylated by the MAPKs and are implicated in the upregulation of c-Jun. IL-1 beta and TNF alpha stimulated the phosphorylation of c-Jun and ATF2. However, IL-1 beta induced a greater increase in c-Jun protein. Inhibitors of protein kinase C (PKC) (Ro318220, GF109203X) and the ERK cascade (PD98059) attenuated the increase in c-Jun induced by IL-1 beta, but LY294002 (an inhibitor of phosphatidylinositol 3' kinase) and SB203580 (an inhibitor of p38-MAPK, which also inhibits certain JNK isoforms) had no effect. These data illustrate that some of the pathological effects of IL-1 beta and TNF alpha may be mediated through the MAPK cascades, and that the ERK cascade, rather than JNKs or p38-MAPKs, are implicated in the upregulation of c-Jun by IL-1 beta.

Activation of protein kinase cascades in the heart by hypertrophic G protein-coupled receptor agonists.

Cardiac myocyte hypertrophy involves changes in cell structure and alterations in protein expression regulated at both the transcriptional and translational levels. Hypertrophic G protein-coupled receptor (GPCR) agonists such as endothelin-(ET-1) and phenylephrine stimulate a number of protein kinase cascades in the heart. Mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) cascades stimulated include the extracellularly regulated kinase cascade, the stress-activated protein kinase/c-Jun N-terminal kinase cascade, and the p38 MAPK cascade. All 3 pathways have been implicated in hypertrophy, but recent ex vivo evidence also suggests that there may be additional effects on cell survival. ET-1 and phenylephrine also stimulate the protein kinase B pathway, and this may be involved in the regulation of protein synthesis by these agonists. Thus, protein kinase-mediated signaling may be important in the regulation of the development of myocyte hypertrophy.

Up-regulation of c-jun mRNA in cardiac myocytes requires the extracellular signal-regulated kinase cascade, but c-Jun N-terminal kinases are required for efficient up-regulation of c-Jun protein.

Cardiac hypertrophy, an important adaptational response, is associated with up-regulation of the immediate early gene, c- jun, which encodes the c-Jun transcription factor. c-Jun may feed back to up-regulate its own transcription and, since the c-Jun N-terminal kinase (JNK) family of mitogen-activated protein kinases (MAPKs) phosphorylate c-Jun(Ser-63/73) to increase its transactivating activity, JNKs are thought to be the principal factors involved in c- jun up-regulation. Hypertrophy in primary cultures of cardiac myocytes is induced by endothelin-1, phenylephrine or PMA, probably through activation of one or more of the MAPK family. These three agonists increased c- jun mRNA with the rank order of potency of PMA approximately endothelin-1>phenylephrine. Up-regulation of c- jun mRNA by endothelin-1 was attenuated by inhibitors of protein kinase C (GF109203X) and the extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK) cascade (PD98059 or U0126), but not by inhibitors of the JNK (SP600125) or p38-MAPK (SB203580) cascades. Hyperosmotic shock (0.5 M sorbitol) powerfully activates JNKs, but did not increase c- jun mRNA. These data suggest that ERKs, rather than JNKs, are required for c- jun up-regulation. However, endothelin-1 and phenylephrine induced greater up-regulation of c-Jun protein than PMA and phosphorylation of c-Jun(Ser-63/73) correlated with the level of c-Jun protein. Up-regulation of c-Jun protein by endothelin-1 was attenuated by inhibitors of protein kinase C and the ERK cascade, probably correlating with a primary input of ERKs into transcription. In addition, SP600125 inhibited the phosphorylation of c-Jun(Ser-63/73), attenuated the increase in c-Jun protein induced by endothelin-1 and increased the rate of c-Jun degradation. Thus whereas ERKs are the principal MAPKs required for c- jun transcription, JNKs are necessary to stabilize c-Jun for efficient up-regulation of the protein.

Endothelin-1 promotes phosphorylation of CREB transcription factor in primary cultures of neonatal rat cardiac myocytes: implications for the regulation of c-jun expression.

Cardiac myocyte hypertrophy is associated with an increase in expression of immediate early genes (e.g. c-jun) via activation of pre-existing transcription factors. The activity of CREB transcription factor is regulated through phosphorylation of Ser-133 by one of several protein kinases (e.g. protein kinase A (PKA), p90 ribosomal S6 kinases (RSKs) and the related kinase, MSK1). A cell-permeable form of cAMP, hypertrophic agonists (endothelin-1 (ET-1), phenylephrine (PE)) and hyperosmotic shock all promoted phosphorylation of CREB(Ser-133) in rat neonatal cardiac myocytes. The response to endothelin-1 required the extracellular signal-regulated kinase cascade which stimulates both RSKs and MSK1. Phosphorylation of CREB(Ser-133) in response to ET-1 was not associated with any increase in DNA binding to a consensus cAMP-response element (CRE). The rat c-jun promoter contains elements which may bind either c-Jun/ATF2 or CREB/ATF1 dimers. Using extracts from rat cardiac myocytes, we identified at least two complexes which bind to the most proximal of these elements, one of which contained CREB and the other c-Jun. Thus, phosphorylation and activation of CREB in cardiac myocytes may be effected by a range of different stimuli to influence the expression of immediate early genes such as c-jun.

Peptide growth factors signal differentially through protein kinase C to extracellular signal-regulated kinases in neonatal cardiomyocytes

The extracellular signal-regulated kinases 1/2 (ERK1/2) are activated in cardiomyocytes by Gq protein-coupled receptors and are associated with induction of hypertrophy. Here, we demonstrate that, in primary cardiomyocyte cultures, ERK1/2 were also significantly activated by platelet-derived growth factor (PDGF), epidermal growth factor (EGF) or fibroblast growth factor (FGF), but insulin, insulin-like growth factor 1 (IGF-1) and nerve growth factor (NGF) had relatively minor effects. PDGF, EGF or FGF increased cardiomyocyte size via ERK1/2, whereas insulin, IGF-1 or NGF had no effect suggesting minimum thresholds/durations of ERK1/2 signaling are required for the morphological changes associated with hypertrophy. Peptide growth factors are widely accepted to activate phospholipase C gamma1 (PLCgamma1) and protein kinase C (PKC). In cardiomyocytes, only PDGF stimulated tyrosine phosphorylation of PLCgamma1 and nPKCdelta. Furthermore, activation of ERK1/2 by PDGF, but not EGF, required PKC activity. In contrast, EGF substantially increased Ras.GTP with rapid activation of c-Raf, whereas stimulation of Ras.GTP loading by PDGF was minimal and activation of c-Raf was delayed. Our data provide clear evidence for differential coupling of PDGF and EGF receptors to the ERK1/2 cascade, and indicate that a minimum threshold/duration of ERK1/2 signaling is required for the development of cardiomyocyte hypertrophy.