Effects of contrasting forage diets on phosphorus utilisation in lactating dairy cows

The effects of different forage mixtures on duodenal flow and faecal output of phosphorus (P) were measured in lactating dairy cows in two experiments. The forages comprised grass silage (GS) alone or mixtures of GS and urea-treated whole crop wheat (WCW). Replacement of GS by high levels of WCW resulted in a significant decrease in total P (TP), water-soluble P (WSP) and acid-soluble P (ASP) intakes, but increased phytate P (PP) and acid-insoluble P (AIP) intakes. Duodenal flows of all P fractions were unaffected by dietary treatments. However, the amounts of all fractions flowing to the intestine were much higher than the amounts consumed-with the exception of AIP, which was unchanged, and PP, which was considerably reduced. Diets did not significantly affect faecal outputs of TP, ASP, PP and AIP; however, faecal outputs of WSP were significantly higher on WCW than GS diets. Inclusion of WCW significantly decreased TP and WSP availabilities in the total tract but did not affect PP and AIP availabilities. A new fraction of P, which was not present in the feeds, was found in significant amounts in the intestines and proved to be soluble in dilute acid but insoluble in water. Estimated annual excretions for a herd of 100 cows ranged from 1550 to 1721 kg for total P of which 337-786 kg was WSP. The results suggest that GS based diets deposit more P in the environment. However, the potential to cause P pollution depends not only on the quantity but also on the nature of faecal P and on soil parameters. © 2004 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Intentions of UK farmers toward biofuel crop production: Implications for policy targets and land use change

The United States and the European Union have set targets for biofuel production to decrease reliance on fossil fuels and to reduce fossil carbon emissions. Attainment of biofuel targets d6pends upon policy and infrastructure development but also on production of suitable raw materials. Production of relevant crops relies on the decisions that farmers make in their economic and political environment. We need to identify any farmer-related barriers to biofuel production and to determine whether novel policy and technology are required to meet targets. These aspects of the emerging biofuel industry are relevant across international barriers and have notyet been addressed quantitatively. We describe a case study from the UK of farmers' intentions toward producing two biofuel crops for which refining capacity either exists or is under construction. Given farmers' intentions, current land use, and conversion efficiency, we estimate potential biofuel production. These estimates indicate that EU targets are not achievable using domestically grown raw materials without policy intervention, use of alternative feedstocks, and either significant improvements in processing efficiency or largescale changes in land use.

Alternative approaches to predicting methane emissions from dairy cows

Previous attempts to apply statistical models, which correlate nutrient intake with methane production, have been of limited. value where predictions are obtained for nutrient intakes and diet types outside those. used in model construction. Dynamic mechanistic models have proved more suitable for extrapolation, but they remain computationally expensive and are not applied easily in practical situations. The first objective of this research focused on employing conventional techniques to generate statistical models of methane production appropriate to United Kingdom dairy systems. The second objective was to evaluate these models and a model published previously using both United Kingdom and North American data sets. Thirdly, nonlinear models were considered as alternatives to the conventional linear regressions. The United Kingdom calorimetry data used to construct the linear models also were used to develop the three. nonlinear alternatives that were ball of modified Mitscherlich (monomolecular) form. Of the linear models tested,, an equation from the literature proved most reliable across the full range of evaluation data (root mean square prediction error = 21.3%). However, the Mitscherlich models demonstrated the greatest degree of adaptability across diet types and intake level. The most successful model for simulating the independent data was a modified Mitscherlich equation with the steepness parameter set to represent dietary starch-to-ADF ratio (root mean square prediction error = 20.6%). However, when such data were unavailable, simpler Mitscherlich forms relating dry matter or metabolizable energy intake to methane production remained better alternatives relative to their linear counterparts.

Effect of restricted suckling of calves on the productivity of crossbred dairy cattle

An experiment on restricted suckling of crossbred dairy cows was conducted at the Livestock Research Centre, Tanga in north-east Tanzania. The objective of the experiment was to evaluate the comparative productivity of Bos taurus x Bos indicus cows of medium and high levels of Bos taurus inheritance, whose calves were either bucket-reared or suckled residual milk. Lactation milk yield, length and persistency were 1563 L, 289 days, and 1.0, respectively, for the bucket-reared and 1592 L, 289 days and 1.4, respectively, for the suckling group. Days to observed oestrus, first insemination and conception for cows whose calves were bucket-reared were 47, 74 and 115 days, respectively, and 57, 81 and 126 days, respectively, for the suckling cows. The calf weights were similar at 1 year of age. The productivity of the cows, measured as the annual milk offtake, was not significantly higher for those that suckled their calves than for those whose calves were bucket-reared.

Productivity of crossbred dairy cows suckling their calves for 12 or 24 weeks post calving

An experiment on restricted suckling of crossbred dairy cows was conducted at the Livestock Research Centre, Tanga in northeast Tanzania. Thirty-six Bos taurus (Holstein Friesian and Jersey) x Bos indicus (East African Zebu) cows were allocated alternately as they calved to suckling their calves for either 12 or 24 weeks after calving. Cows grazed improved pastures and were offered 4 kg concentrate daily. Milking occurred twice daily by hand; calves were allowed to suck residual milk for 30 min following each milking. Calves were also allowed access to grazing and were offered a maximum of I kg concentrate daily to 24 weeks of age. Weaning age had no significant effect on lactation milk yield for human consumption, the mean (SE) yield being 1806 (102.0) L and 1705 (129. 1) L for 12- and 24-week weaning, respectively. Cows from the two treatments suffered similar losses of live weight and body condition score during lactation and neither group had returned to the original body condition score 40 weeks following calving. Post-partum anoestrous intervals were prolonged. Although not significant, cows suckling calves to 24 weeks had a mean interval to first oestrus extended by 38 days compared with cows suckling calves to 12 weeks. The mean (SE) daily live weight gains of the calves to 52 weeks were 263 (14.1) g/day and 230 (18.1) g/day for calves weaned at 12 and 24 weeks, respectively, such that 12-month weights were 119 (5.6) kg and 110 (7.3) kg, respectively. Twelve-week-weaned calves consumed more concentrate (p < 0.05) from 13 to 24 weeks than did 24-week weaned calves. Calculation of residual milk consumption removed by calves from birth to 12 weeks indicated that it accounted for 28% of total yield. No benefits in cow and calf performance and welfare were found to justify prolonging the suckling period to 24 weeks.

The effects of a short-term increase in supplementation on the reproduction performance in lactating crossbred dairy cows

The hypothesis that dairy cows partially suckling their calves would ovulate following removal of calves when restored to positive energy balance by a short-term increase in supplementation was investigated in 65 crossbred cows. Five treatments (T1, T2, T3, T4, and T5) that differed in the amount of total concentrate fed from calving to week 24 were involved. Calves were allowed to suck residual milk to 12 weeks of age. Energy balance was estimated by measuring intake, milk yield and organic matter digestibility. The occurrence of ovulation was determined by the analysis of milk progesterone (P4) concentration. Four groups that were receiving additional supplementation were restored to positive energy balance, while the control group (T I) remained in negative energy balance. The percentage of cows ovulating was 36%, 58%, 92%, 90% and 60% for T1, T2, T3, T4 and T5, respectively (P = 0.026). Comparison of the timing of ovulation for combined results from T1+T2 and T3+T4+T5 estimated mean time to fail to ovulate as 110 +/- 9.0 and 87 +/- 7.6 days, respectively (p = 0.023). The percentage of the cows showing oestrus was 9%, 8%, 33%, 40% and 40% for T1, T2, T3, T4 and T5, respectively (P = 0.197). Short-term increases in supplementation are unlikely to be an attractive means of reducing calving intervals.

Some factors affecting variation in milk yield in crossbred dairy cows on smallholder farms in north-east Tanzania

A 2-year longitudinal survey was carried out to investigate factors affecting milk yield in crossbred cows on smallholder farms in and around an urban centre. Sixty farms were visited at approximately 2-week intervals and details of milk yield, body condition score (BCS) and heart girth measurements were collected. Fifteen farms were within the town (U), 23 farms were approximately 5 km from town (SU), and 22 farms approximately 10 km from town (PU). Sources of variation in milk yield were investigated using a general linear model by a stepwise forward selection and backward elimination approach to judge important independent variables. Factors considered for the first step of formulation of the model included location (PU, SU and U), calving season, BCS at calving, at 3 months postpartum and at 6 months postpartum, calving year, herd size category, source of labour (hired and family labour), calf rearing method (bucket and partial suckling) and parity number of the cow. Daily milk yield (including milk sucked by calves) was determined by calving year (p < 0.0001), calf rearing method (p = 0.044) and BCS at calving (p < 0.0001). Only BCS at calving contributed to variation in volume of milk sucked by the calf, lactation length and lactation milk yield. BCS at 3 months after calving was improved on farms where labour was hired (p = 0.041) and BCS change from calving to 6 months was more than twice as likely to be negative on U than SU and PU farms. It was concluded that milk production was predominantly associated with BCS at calving, lactation milk yield increasing quadratically from score 1 to 3. BCS at calving may provide a simple, single indicator of the nutritional status of a cow population.

Some factors affecting reproductive success in crossbred dairy cows on smallholder farms in coastal north-east Tanzania

A 2-year longitudinal survey was carried out to investigate factors affecting reproduction in crossbred cows on smallholder farms in and around an urban centre. Sixty farms were visited at approximately 2-week intervals and details of reproductive traits and body condition score (BCS) were collected. Fifteen farms were within the town (U), 23 farms were approximately 5 km from town (SU), and 22 farms approximately 10 km from town (PU). Sources of variation in reproductive traits were investigated using a general linear model (GLM) by a stepwise forward selection and backward elimination approach to judge important independent variables. Factors considered for the first step of formulation of the model included location (PU, SU and U), type of insemination, calving season, BCS at calving, at 3 months postpartum and at 6 months postpartum, calving year, herd size category, source of labour (hired and family labour), calf rearing method (bucket and partial suckling) and parity number of the cow. The effects of the independent variables identified were then investigated using a non-parametric survival technique. The number of days to first oestrus was increased on the U site (p = 0.045) and when family labour was used (p = 0.02). The non-parametric test confirmed the effect of site (p = 0.059), but effect of labour was not significant. The number of days from calving to conception was reduced by hiring labour (p = 0.003) and using natural service (p = 0.028). The non-parametric test confirmed the effects of type of insemination (p = 0.0001) while also identifying extended calving intervals on U and SU sites (p = 0.014). Labour source was again non-significant. Calving interval was prolonged on U and SU sites (p = 0.021), by the use of AI (p = 0.031) and by the use of family labour (p = 0.001). The non-parametric test confirmed the effect of site (p = 0.008) and insemination type (p > 0.0001) but not of labour source. It was concluded that under favourable conditions (PU site, hired labour and natural service) calving intervals of around 440 days could be achieved.

Estimation of milk production from smallholder dairy cattle in the coastal lowlands of Kenya

A study was carried out on 92 smallholder farms in Kwale district in Coast Province of Kenya to estimate the milk yield. The effect of concentrate feed supplementation on milk yield was also evaluated. Data were collected during a one-year observational longitudinal study. Analysis was done for 371 observations following 63 calving events. The mean annual milk offtake was estimated at 2021 kg/cow. Forty-nine (77.8%) of the lactating cows were supplemented with concentrate feeds at varying rates of 0.5-3.0 kg/cow per day. Supplementary feeding of lactating cows led to a significantly higher mean daily milk yield compared to non-supplemented cows throughout the year (p<0.05). The mean annual milk offtake from supplemented cows (2195 kg/cow) was 18.6% more than offtake from non-supplemented cows, a difference that was statistically significant (p<0.05). Therefore, supplementary feeding of commercial feed concentrates was a rational management practice. It was also concluded that milk production from smallholder dairy cows in the coastal lowlands of Kenya was comparable to that from similar production systems but lower than national targets.

Organic dairy production: A review

Organic farming aims to create an integrated, humane, environmentally and economically sustainable agricultural system. For organic dairy systems, the fulfilment of these aims requires the understanding and integration of a number of systems components including land use (mixed or dairy only) and stocking rate; grassland and forage production, including quantity and quality; potential milk yield and milk quality; animal nutrition (largely farm based) and health; environmental sustainability such as farm nutrient balance; the financial status of the farm, including enterprise performance, fixed costs and labour use, and farm income and profit; and finally the policy environment in which organic dairy systems operate. This review discusses worldwide research undertaken into each of these key components of organic dairy production systems. As converting organic dairy systems are often considerably different to established organic systems, both the converting and developed organic dairy system are discussed in this paper.