The impact of real estate on the terminal wealth of the UK mixed-asset portfolio

The argument for the inclusion of real estate in the mixed-asset portfolio has concentrated on examining its effect in reducing the portfolio risk - the time series standard deviation (TSSD), mainly using ex-post time series data. However, the past as such is not really relevant to the long-term institutional investors, such as the insurance companies and pension funds, who are more concerned the terminal wealth (TW) of their investments and the variability of this wealth, the terminal wealth standard deviation (TWSD), since it is from the TW of their investment portfolio that policyholders and pensioners will derive their benefits. These kinds of investors with particular holding period requirements will be less concerned about the within period volatility of their portfolios and more by the possibility that their portfolio returns will fail to finance their liabilities. This variability in TW will be closely linked to the risk of shortfall in the quantity of assets needed to match the institution’s liabilities. The question remains therefore can real estate enhance the TW of the mixed-asset portfolio and/or reduce the variability of the TW. This paper uses annual data from the United Kingdom (UK) for the period 1972-2001 to test whether real estate is an asset class that not only reduces ex-post portfolio risk but also enhances portfolio TW and/or reduces the variability of TW.

The impact of real estate on the mixed-asset portfolio in periods of financial stress

The case for holding real estate in the mixed-asset portfolio is typically made on its stabilising effect as a result of its diversification benefits. However, portfolio diversification often fails when it is most needed, i.e. during periods of financial stress. In these periods, the variability of returns for most asset classes increases thus reducing the stabilising effect of a diversified portfolio. This paper applies the approach of Chow et al (1999) to the US domestic mixed-asset portfolio to establish whether real estate, represented by REITs, is especially useful in times of financial stress. To this end monthly returns data on five assets classes: large cap stocks, small cap stocks, long dated government bonds, cash (T-Bills) and real estate (REITs) are evaluated over the period January 1972 to December 2001. The results indicate that the inclusion of REITs in the mixed-asset portfolio can lead to increases or decreases in returns depending on the asset class replaced and whether the period is one of calm or stress. However, the inclusion of REITs invariably leads to reductions in portfolio risk that are greater than any loss in return, especially in periods of financial stress. In other words, REITs acts as a stabilising force on the mixed-asset portfolio when it is most needed, i.e. in periods of financial stress.

The return due to diversification of real estate to the US mixed-asset portfolio

Booth and Fama (1992) observe that the compound return and so the terminal wealth of a portfolio is greater than the weighted average of the compound returns of the individual investments, a difference referred to as the return due to diversification (RDD). Thus assets that offer high RDD should be particularly attractive investments. This paper test the proposition that US direct real estate is such an asset class using annual data over the period 1951-2001. The results show that adding real estate to an existing mixed-asset portfolio increases the compound return and so the terminal wealth of the fund. However, the results are dependent on the percentage allocation to real estate and the asset class replaced.

The case for REITs in the mixed-asset portfolio in the short and long run

The poor performance of the Stock Market in the US up to the middle of 2003 has meant that REITs are increasingly been seen as an attractive addition to the mixed-asset portfolio. However, there is little evidence to indicate the consistency of the role REITs should play a role in the mixed-asset portfolio over different investment horizons. The results highlight that REITs do play a significant role over both different time horizons and holding periods. The findings show that REITs attractiveness as a diversification asset increase as the holding period increases. In addition, their diversification qualities span the entire efficient frontier, providing return enhancement properties at the lower end, switching to risk reduction qualities at the top end of the frontier.

Real estate in the mixed-asset portfolio: the question of consistency

The recent poor performance of the equity market in the UK has meant that real estate is increasingly been seen as an attractive addition to the mixed-asset portfolio. However, determining whether the good return enjoyed by real estate is a temporary or long-term phenomenon is a question that remains largely unanswered. In other words, there is little or no evidence to indicate whether real estate should play a consistent role in the mixed-asset portfolio over short- and long-term investment horizons. Consistency in this context refers to the ability of an asset to maintain a positive allocation in an efficient portfolio over different holding periods. Such consistency is a desirable trait for any investment, but takes on particular significance when real estate is considered, as the asset class is generally perceived to be a long-term investment due to illiquidity. From an institutional investor’s perspective, it is therefore crucial to determine whether real estate can be reasonably expected to maintain a consistent allocation in the mixed-asset portfolio in both the short and long run and at what percentage. To address the question of consistency the allocation of real estate in the mixed-asset portfolio was calculated over different holding periods varying from 5- to 25-years.

Conformational studies of mixed-ligand copper(II) chelates. Crystal and molecular structure of (N,N-dimethyl-N′-ethyl-1,2-diaminoethane-(1-phenyl-1,3,-butanedionato)copper(II) perchlorate

The IR and ligand field spectra and the structure of the mixed-ligand compound [N,N-dimethyl-N′-ethyl-1,2-diaminoethane(1-phenyl-1,3-butanedionato)(perchlorato)copper(II)]), [Cu(dmeen)bzac(OClO3)], are reported. The structure was determined by single crystal X-ray diffraction analysis (triclinic, space group ). The structure is square pyramidal with the apical position occupied by one oxygen of the tetrahedral perchlorato group (distance from copper 2.452(5) Å). The plane of the phenyl ring is tilted forming an angle of 16.72(14)° with the plane of the β-dionato moiety. The nitrogenous base adopts the gauche conformation with torsional angle of 108.72(14)°. The ethyl group is cis oriented relative to the phenyl group, occupying the equatorial position with the vector of the carbon-nitrogen bond forming an angle of 143.9(3)° with the CuNN plane. The interactions of the adjacent axial hydrogen with an oxygen of the perchlorato group result in hydrogen bond formation. The IR spectra reveal that in the solid state the Br− or Cl− displace easily the ClO4− group. The shifts in the ligand field spectra indicate that polar solvents participate in donor-acceptor interactions with the metal centre along an axis perpendicular to the CuN2O2 plane.

Influence of hydrogen bonding in the structure of mixed-ligand copper(II) chelates. Spectra and structure of [aquo((2,2'-dipyridylamine)-(3-chloro-2,4-pentanedionato)copper(II)] nitrate

The IR, the ligand field spectra and the crystal structure of the mixed-ligand compound [(aquo)2,2P1 , a = 8.718(5), b = 9.407(5), c = 13.484 (7) Å, = 94.17(4)°, = 105.12(5)°, = 119.75(5)°, Z = 2, R = 0.0332, R W = 0.0869).

Simultaneous bridge-localized and mixed-valence character in diruthenium radical cations featuring diethynylaromatic bridging ligands

A series of bimetallic ruthenium complexes [{Ru(dppe)Cp*}2(μ-C≡CArC≡C)] featuring diethynylaromatic bridging ligands (Ar = 1,4-phenylene, 1,4-naphthylene, 9,10-anthrylene) have been prepared and some representative molecular structures determined. A combination of UV–vis–NIR and IR spectroelectrochemical methods and density functional theory (DFT) have been used to demonstrate that one-electron oxidation of compounds [{Ru(dppe)Cp*}2(μ-C≡CArC≡C)](HC≡CArC≡CH = 1,4-diethynylbenzene; 1,4-diethynyl-2,5-dimethoxybenzene; 1,4-diethynylnaphthalene; 9,10-diethynylanthracene) yields solutions containing radical cations that exhibit characteristics of both oxidation of the diethynylaromatic portion of the bridge, and a mixed-valence state. The simultaneous population of bridge-oxidized and mixed-valence states is likely related to a number of factors, including orientation of the plane of the aromatic portion of the bridging ligand with respect to the metal d-orbitals of appropriate π-symmetry.

Asymmetric oligopoly and foreign direct investment: implications for host-country tax-setting

We present a duopoly model with heterogeneous firms that vary in cost-efficiency, each of which can choose to serve a foreign market by either exporting or local production. We do so to analyse the effects of a host-country corporate profit tax on both the scale and composition of FDI, and find that: strategic interaction between oligopolistic firms provides for a pattern of FDI that favours cost-inefficiency to the detriment of host-country welfare; and the host-country tax rate can be optimally used to avoid such patterns of FDI and instead promote direct investment by a relatively cost-efficient firm.

Determination of turbulent heat fluxes using a large aperture scintillometer over undulating mixed agricultural terrain

Scintillometry is an established technique for determining large areal average sensible heat fluxes. The scintillometer measurement is related to sensible heat flux via Monin–Obukhov similarity theory, which was developed for ideal homogeneous land surfaces. In this study it is shown that judicious application of scintillometry over heterogeneous mixed agriculture on undulating topography yields valid results when compared to eddy covariance (EC). A large aperture scintillometer (LAS) over a 2.4 km path was compared with four EC stations measuring sensible (H) and latent (LvE) heat fluxes over different vegetation (cereals and grass) which when aggregated were representative of the LAS source area. The partitioning of available energy into H and LvE varied strongly for different vegetation types, with H varying by a factor of three between senesced winter wheat and grass pasture. The LAS derived H agrees (one-to-one within the experimental uncertainty) with H aggregated from EC with a high coefficient of determination of 0.94. Chronological analysis shows individual fields may have a varying contribution to the areal average sensible heat flux on short (weekly) time scales due to phenological development and changing soil moisture conditions. Using spatially aggregated measurements of net radiation and soil heat flux with H from the LAS, the areal averaged latent heat flux (LvELAS) was calculated as the residual of the surface energy balance. The regression of LvELAS against aggregated LvE from the EC stations has a slope of 0.94, close to ideal, and demonstrates that this is an accurate method for the landscape-scale estimation of evaporation over heterogeneous complex topography.

In vitro fermentation of lactulose-derived oligosaccharides by mixed fecal microbiota

Fermentation properties of oligosaccharides derived from lactulose (OsLu) and lactose (GOS) have been assessed in pH-controlled anaerobic batch cultures using lactulose and Vivinal-GOS as reference carbohydrates. Changes in gut bacterial populations and their metabolic activities were monitored over 24 h by fluorescent in situ hybridization (FISH) and by measurement of short-chain fatty acid (SCFA) production. Lactulose-derived oligosaccharides were selectively fermented by Bifidobacterium and lactic acid bacterial populations producing higher SCFA concentrations compared to GOS. The highest total SCFA production was from Vivinal-GOS > lactulose > OsLu > GOS. Longer incubation periods produced a selective fermentation of OsLu when they were used as a carbon source reaching the highest selective index scores. The new oligosaccharides may constitute a good alternative to lactulose, and they could belong to a new generation of prebiotics to be used as a functional ingredient for improving the composition of gut microflora.

Wind-driven mixing below the oceanic mixed layer

This study describes the turbulent processes in the upper ocean boundary layer forced by a constant surface stress in the absence of the Coriolis force using large-eddy simulation. The boundary layer that develops has a two-layer structure, a well-mixed layer above a stratified shear layer. The depth of the mixed layer is approximately constant, whereas the depth of the shear layer increases with time. The turbulent momentum flux varies approximately linearly from the surface to the base of the shear layer. There is a maximum in the production of turbulence through shear at the base of the mixed layer. The magnitude of the shear production increases with time. The increase is mainly a result of the increase in the turbulent momentum flux at the base of the mixed layer due to the increase in the depth of the boundary layer. The length scale for the shear turbulence is the boundary layer depth. A simple scaling is proposed for the magnitude of the shear production that depends on the surface forcing and the average mixed layer current. The scaling can be interpreted in terms of the divergence of a mean kinetic energy flux. A simple bulk model of the boundary layer is developed to obtain equations describing the variation of the mixed layer and boundary layer depths with time. The model shows that the rate at which the boundary layer deepens does not depend on the stratification of the thermocline. The bulk model shows that the variation in the mixed layer depth is small as long as the surface buoyancy flux is small.