Concentration in the ownership of plant variety rights: Some implications for developing countries

This paper explores concentration levels in the ownership of intellectual property rights over plant varieties worldwide. An analysis of data for 30 UPOV member-countries shows a high degree of concentration in the ownership of plant variety rights for six major crops at the national level in the developed world. Much of this concentration has arisen owing to the rapid consolidation of the seed industry through mergers and acquisitions, especially in the 1990s. A high degree of concentration in the ownership of plant variety rights, in combination with recent efforts to strengthen plant variety protection regimes, is likely to have significant effects on the prospects for future innovation in plant breeding and the distribution of market power between companies. For developing countries, concentration in intellectual property right ownership may have important implications for the structure of domestic seed industries and access to protected varieties and associated plant breeding technologies. These implications for developing countries are likely to become apparent in the context of the rapid spread of plant variety protection and access legislation, emerging changes in the international exchange regime for plant material and liberalised investment policies permitting foreign investment in the seeds sector.

Concentration in ownership of plant variety rights: some implications for developing countries

This paper explores concentration levels in the ownership of intellectual property rights over plant varieties worldwide. An analysis of data for 30 UPOV member-countries shows a high degree of concentration in the ownership of plant variety rights for six major crops at the national level in the developed world. Much of this concentration has arisen owing to the rapid consolidation of the seed industry through mergers and acquisitions, especially in the 1990s. A high degree of concentration in the ownership of plant variety rights, in combination with recent efforts to strengthen plant variety protection regimes, is likely to have significant effects on the prospects for future innovation in plant breeding and the distribution of market power between companies. For developing countries, concentration in intellectual property right ownership may have important implications for the structure of domestic seed industries and access to protected varieties and associated plant breeding technologies. These implications for developing countries are likely to become apparent in the context of the rapid spread of plant variety protection and access legislation, emerging changes in the international exchange regime for plant material and liberalised investment policies permitting foreign investment in the seeds sector. (C) 2003 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

A GIS-based empirical model for vegetation prediction in Lefka Ori, Crete

The aim of the study was to establish and verify a predictive vegetation model for plant community distribution in the alti-Mediterranean zone of the Lefka Ori massif, western Crete. Based on previous work three variables were identified as significant determinants of plant community distribution, namely altitude, slope angle and geomorphic landform. The response of four community types against these variables was tested using classification trees analysis in order to model community type occurrence. V-fold cross-validation plots were used to determine the length of the best fitting tree. The final 9node tree selected, classified correctly 92.5% of the samples. The results were used to provide decision rules for the construction of a spatial model for each community type. The model was implemented within a Geographical Information System (GIS) to predict the distribution of each community type in the study site. The evaluation of the model in the field using an error matrix gave an overall accuracy of 71%. The user's accuracy was higher for the Crepis-Cirsium (100%) and Telephium-Herniaria community type (66.7%) and relatively lower for the Peucedanum-Alyssum and Dianthus-Lomelosia community types (63.2% and 62.5%, respectively). Misclassification and field validation points to the need for improved geomorphological mapping and suggests the presence of transitional communities between existing community types.

Effects of grazing management on beetle and plant assemblages during the re-creation of a flood-plain meadow

Flood-plain meadows (Alopecurus-Sanguisorba grassland) are a floristically rich community of conservation importance throughout Europe. Declines in their distribution due in part to modern farming practices mean they now cover less than 1500 ha in the UK. To investigate the effect of grazing regime during the re-creation of this grassland type, target plant species were sown onto ex-arable land during 1985. Traditional management, based on a July hay cut followed by aftermath grazing was subsequently instigated, and the site was divided into replicated grazing regimes of cattle, sheep and an un-grazed control. Plant and beetle assemblages were sampled and compared to those of target flood-plain meadows and improved grassland communities. Within the re-creation treatments the absence of aftermath grazing reduced beetle abundances and species richness. Assemblages of plants were closest to that of the target flood-plain meadow under sheep grazing, although this differed little from cattle grazing. Beetle species assemblages and functional group structure were, however, closest to the target grassland under cattle grazing. For all taxa the greatest resilience to succession to the target flood-plain meadow occurred when grazing was not part of the management prescription. Although successful re-creation had not been achieved for either the plants or beetles, cutting followed by aftermath cattle grazing has provided the best management to date. (c) 2006 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Genomic and genetic analyses of diversity and plant interactions of Pseudomonas fluorescens

Background: Pseudomonas fluorescens are common soil bacteria that can improve plant health through nutrient cycling, pathogen antagonism and induction of plant defenses. The genome sequences of strains SBW25 and Pf0-1 were determined and compared to each other and with P. fluorescens Pf-5. A functional genomic in vivo expression technology (IVET) screen provided insight into genes used by P. fluorescens in its natural environment and an improved understanding of the ecological significance of diversity within this species. Results: Comparisons of three P. fluorescens genomes (SBW25, Pf0-1, Pf-5) revealed considerable divergence: 61% of genes are shared, the majority located near the replication origin. Phylogenetic and average amino acid identity analyses showed a low overall relationship. A functional screen of SBW25 defined 125 plant-induced genes including a range of functions specific to the plant environment. Orthologues of 83 of these exist in Pf0-1 and Pf-5, with 73 shared by both strains. The P. fluorescens genomes carry numerous complex repetitive DNA sequences, some resembling Miniature Inverted-repeat Transposable Elements (MITEs). In SBW25, repeat density and distribution revealed 'repeat deserts' lacking repeats, covering approximately 40% of the genome. Conclusions: P. fluorescens genomes are highly diverse. Strain-specific regions around the replication terminus suggest genome compartmentalization. The genomic heterogeneity among the three strains is reminiscent of a species complex rather than a single species. That 42% of plant-inducible genes were not shared by all strains reinforces this conclusion and shows that ecological success requires specialized and core functions. The diversity also indicates the significant size of genetic information within the Pseudomonas pan genome.

Spatio-temporal analysis of an invasive plant pathogen (Phytophthora ramorum) in England and Wales

Phytophthora ramorum is a damaging invasive plant pathogen and was first discovered in the UK in 2002. Spatial point analyses were applied to the occurrence of this disease in England and Wales during the period of 2003-2006 in order to assess its spatio-temporal spread. Out of the 4301 garden centres and nurseries (GCN) surveyed, there were 164, 105, 123 and 41 sites with P. ramorum in 2003, 2004, 2005 and 2006, respectively. Spatial analysis of the observed point patterns of GCN outbreaks suggested that these sites were significantly clumped within a radius of ca 60 km in 2003, but not in later years. Further analyses were conducted to determine the relationship of GCN outbreak sites over two consecutive years and thus to infer possible disease spread over time. This analysis suggested that disease spread among GCN sites was most likely to have occurred within a distance of 60 km for 2003-2004, but not for the later years. There were 35, 63, 81 and 58 sites with P. ramorum in the semi-natural environment (SNE). Analyses were carried out to assess whether infected GCN sites could act as an inoculum source of infected SNE plants or vice versa. In all years, there was a significant spatial closeness among GCN and SNE outbreak sites within a distance of 1 km. But a significant relationship over a longer distance (within 60 km) was only observed between cases in 2003 and 2004. These analyses suggest that statutory actions taken so far appear to have reduced the extent of long-distance spread of P. ramorum among garden centres and nurseries, but not the disease spread at a shorter distance between GCN and SNE sites.

The population dynamical consequences of density-dependence in fungal plant pathogens

Almost all stages of a plant pathogen life cycle are potentially density dependent. At small scales and short time spans appropriate to a single-pathogen individual, density dependence can be extremely strong, mediated both by simple resource use, changes in the host due to defence reactions and signals between fungal individuals. In most cases, the consequences are a rise in reproductive rate as the pathogen becomes rarer, and consequently stabilisation of the population dynamics; however, at very low density reproduction may become inefficient, either because it is co-operative or because heterothallic fungi do not form sexual spores. The consequence will be historically determined distributions. On a medium scale, appropriate for example to several generations of a host plant, the factors already mentioned remain important but specialist natural enemies may also start to affect the dynamics detectably. This could in theory lead to complex (e.g. chaotic) dynamics, but in practice heterogeneity of habitat and host is likely to smooth the extreme relationships and make for more stable, though still very variable, dynamics. On longer temporal and longer spatial scales evolutionary responses by both host and pathogen are likely to become important, producing patterns which ultimately depend on the strength of interactions at smaller scales.

Are rare species rare or just overlooked? Assessing the distribution of the freshwater bryozoan, Lophopus crystallinus

Given the widespread degradation of freshwater habitats, assessing the distributions of species that may be negatively or positively impacted should be of general interest. However, determining distributions of freshwater organisms that are small and patchily distributed and attached or sedentary is particularly problematic, as it is time consuming, inaccurate, and nearly impossible when the focal species is rare. Here we illustrate the use of indirect sampling approaches to survey the distribution of the rare freshwater bryozoan Lophopus crystallinus, a priority species in the UK Biodiversity Action Plan [Anonymous, 1999. UK Biodiversity Group Tranche 2 Action Plans. Invertebrates, Vol. 4. Environment Agency, Peterborough, pp. 437-439.1. By utilising two complementary methods for sampling bryozoan propagules (statoblasts), namely the collection of debris samples and sediment cores, we achieved an efficient and integrative sampling of habitats across spatial and temporal scales. Analysis of 154 debris samples, encompassing 62 rivers and lakes, identified at least 16 new populations while analysis of 26 sediment cores provided evidence of current or very recent (in the last 10-20 years) occurrence in a further six localities. These results represent a more than 10-fold increase in the current recorded distribution of the species in the UK. Logistic regression analysis provided evidence that L. crystallinus is generally found in lowland sites and is tolerant of eutrophication. Our study exemplifies how integrative and indirect sampling approaches can greatly aid in assessing the conservation status of rare aquatic species and reveals, in this case, that the focal species is less rare than previously appreciated. (c) 2006 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Year to year variation in the small scale distribution of shuttle mosses

A detailed spore investigation of spore release and dispersal from an isolated colony of Phascum cuspidatum Hedw. indicated that approximately 98% of the spores originally present remained within the colony. The spatial distribution of colonies of P.cuspidatum and Pottia truncata (Hedw.) Fürer. in relation to those of the previous year was investigated by mapping the occurrence of colonies in five permanent quadrats for each species during two successive years. Phascum cuspidatum reoccurred in three quadrats during the second year, and P. truncata in only one, in the latter case apparently due to invasion by other mosses, principally Barbula hornschuchiana Schultz. A substantial proportion of the second year colonies overlapped in position with the first year colonies, particularly in P.cuspidatum. The results are discussed in relation to data on spore dispersal and other aspects of the life-history of these annual or short-lived shuttle mosses.

Uneven distribution of nutrients in the root zone affects the incidence of blossom end rot and concentration of calcium and potassium in fruits of tomato

Tomato plants ( Lycopersicon esculentum Mill. var. DRK) were grown hydroponically to determine the effect of an uneven distribution of nutrients in the root zone on blossomend rot (BER) and Ca and K concentrations in the fruits. The plants were grown in rockwool with their root system divided into two portions. Each portion was irrigated with nutrient solutions with either the same or the different electrical conductivity (EC) in the range 0 to 6 dS m(-1). Solutions with high EC supplied to both sides of the root system significantly increased the incidence of BER. However, when only water or a solution of low EC was supplied to one portion, BER was reduced by 80%. Fruit yields were significantly higher ( P < 0.01) for plants that received solutions of the uneven EC treatments (6/0 or 4.5/0 EC treatment). Plants supplied with solutions of uneven EC generally had higher leaf and fruit concentrations of Ca but lower concentrations of K than those supplied with solutions of high EC. There was no difference in Ca concentration at the distal end of young fruits of the uneven EC treatment but it was reduced in the high EC treatments. The concentration of K in the mature fruits of the uneven EC treatments was lower than that of the high EC treatments and higher or similar that of the 3/3 or 2.5/2.5 EC treatments ( controls). A clear relationship was found between the incidence of BER and the exudation rate. High rate of xylem exudation was observed in the uneven EC treatments. Reduction of BER in the uneven EC treatments is most likely to be the effect of high exudation rate on Ca status in the young fruits. It was concluded that high EC of solution had positive effects on Ca concentration and incidence of BER provided that nutrient solution with low EC or water is supplied to the one portion of the root system.

Rooting cuttings of Syringa vulgaris cv. Charles Joly and Corylus avellana cv. Aurea: the influence of stock plant pruning and shoot growth

The relationship between shoot growth and rooting was examined in two, 'difficult-to root' amenity trees, Syringa vulgaris L. cv. Charles Joly and Corylus avellana L. cv. Aurea. A range of treatments reflecting severity of pruning was imposed on field-grown stock prior to bud break. To minimise variation due to the numbers of buds that developed under different treatments, bud number was restricted to 30 per plant. Leafy cuttings were harvested at different stages of the active growth phase of each species. With Syringa, rooting decreased with later harvests, but loss of rooting potential was delayed in cuttings collected from the most severe pruning treatment. Rooting potential was associated with the extent of post-excision shoot growth on the cutting but regression analyses indicated that this relationship could not entirely explain the loss of rooting with time, nor the effects due to pruning. Similarly, in Corylus rooting was promoted by severe pruning, but the relationship between apical growth on the cutting and rooting was weaker than in Syringa, and only at the last harvest did growth play a critical role in determining rooting. Another unusual factor of the last harvest of Corylus was a bimodal distribution of roots per cutting, with very few rooted cuttings having less than five roots. This implies that, for this harvest at least, the potential of an individual cutting to root is probably not limited by the number of potential rooting sites.

Distribution and abundance of ladybirds (Coleoptera : Coccinellidae) in non-crop habitats

The abundance and distribution of coccinellids in non-crop habitats was studied using removal sampling and visual observation. Coccinellids were most frequently found on grassland habitats. Coccinellid abundance appeared to be most strongly correlated with the percentage ground cover of thistle, grasses and nettles. The most commonly collected coccinellids were Coccinella septempunctata and Adalia bipunctata comprising 60% and 35% of the catches respectively. Most coccinellids were found on Rubus spp. with nettles (Urtica dioica) and grasses being the next most favoured plant species. Adalia bipunctata was the most commonly found coccinellid species on nettles and birch (Betula spp.) whereas C. septempunctata was the most commonly found species on grasses, Rubus spp, and oak (Quercus spp.). These results are discussed in light of current thinking on the importance of "island" habitats as pali of an integrated pest management programme.

Non-testability of equal weights spatial dependence

We show that any invariant test for spatial autocorrelation in a spatial error or spatial lag model with equal weights matrix has power equal to size. This result holds under the assumption of an elliptical distribution. Under Gaussianity, we also show that any test whose power is larger than its size for at least one point in the parameter space must be biased.

Spatial and temporal effects of free-air CO2 enrichment (POPFACE) on leaf growth, cell expansion and cell production in a closed canopy of poplar

Leaf expansion in the fast-growing tree,Populus × euramericana was stimulated by elevated [CO2] in a closed-canopy forest plantation, exposed using a free air CO2 enrichment technique enabling long-term experimentation in field conditions. The effects of elevated [CO2] over time were characterized and related to the leaf plastochron index (LPI), and showed that leaf expansion was stimulated at very early (LPI, 0–3) and late (LPI, 6–8) stages in development. Early and late effects of elevated [CO2] were largely the result of increased cell expansion and increased cell production, respectively. Spatial effects of elevated [CO2] were also marked and increased final leaf size resulted from an effect on leaf area, but not leaf length, demonstrating changed leaf shape in response to [CO2]. Leaves exhibited a basipetal gradient of leaf development, investigated by defining seven interveinal areas, with growth ceasing first at the leaf tip. Interestingly, and in contrast to other reports, no spatial differences in epidermal cell size were apparent across the lamina, whereas a clear basipetal gradient in cell production rate was found. These data suggest that the rate and timing of cell production was more important in determining leaf shape, given the constant cell size across the leaf lamina. The effect of elevated [CO2] imposed on this developmental gradient suggested that leaf cell production continued longer in elevated [CO2] and that basal increases in cell production rate were also more important than altered cell expansion for increased final leaf size and altered leaf shape in elevated [CO2].

Resolving the spatial variability of soil N using fractions of soil organic matter

The spatial variability of soil nitrogen (N) mineralisation has not been extensively studied, which limits our capacity to make N fertiliser recommendations. Even less attention has been paid to the scale-dependence of the variation. The objective of this research was to investigate the scale-dependence of variation of mineral N (MinN, N–NO3− plus N–NH4+) at within-field scales. The study was based on the spatial dependence of the labile fractions of SOM, the key fractions for N mineralisation. Soils were sampled in an unbalanced nested design in a 4-ha arable field to examine the distribution of the variation of SOM at 30, 10, 1, and 0.12 m. Organic matter in free and intra-aggregate light fractions (FLF and IALF) was extracted by physical fractionation. The variation occurred entirely within 0.12 m for FLF and at 10 m for IALF. A subsequent sampling on a 5-m grid was undertaken to link the status of the SOM fractions to MinN, which showed uncorrelated spatial dependence. A uniform application of N fertiliser would be suitable in this case. The failure of SOM fractions to identify any spatial dependence of MinN suggests that other soil variables, or crop indicators, should be tested to see if they can identify different N supply areas within the field for a more efficient and environmentally friendly N management.