Understanding climate change projections for precipitation over western Europe with a weather typing approach

Precipitation over western Europe (WE) is projected to increase (decrease) roughly northward (equatorward) of 50°N during the 21st century. These changes are generally attributed to alterations in the regional large-scale circulation, e.g., jet stream, cyclone activity, and blocking frequencies. A novel weather typing within the sector (30°W–10°E, 25–70°N) is used for a more comprehensive dynamical interpretation of precipitation changes. A k-means clustering on daily mean sea level pressure was undertaken for ERA-Interim reanalysis (1979–2014). Eight weather types are identified: S1, S2, S3 (summertime types), W1, W2, W3 (wintertime types), B1, and B2 (blocking-like types). Their distinctive dynamical characteristics allow identifying the main large-scale precipitation-driving mechanisms. Simulations with 22 Coupled Model Intercomparison Project 5 models for recent climate conditions show biases in reproducing the observed seasonality of weather types. In particular, an overestimation of weather type frequencies associated with zonal airflow is identified. Considering projections following the (Representative Concentration Pathways) RCP8.5 scenario over 2071–2100, the frequencies of the three driest types (S1, B2, and W3) are projected to increase (mainly S1, +4%) in detriment of the rainiest types, particularly W1 (−3%). These changes explain most of the precipitation projections over WE. However, a weather type-independent background signal is identified (increase/decrease in precipitation over northern/southern WE), suggesting modifications in precipitation-generating processes and/or model inability to accurately simulate these processes. Despite these caveats in the precipitation scenarios for WE, which must be duly taken into account, our approach permits a better understanding of the projected trends for precipitation over WE.

Activation of the GPR30 receptor promotes lordosis in female mice

BACKGROUND/AIMS: Estrogens are important effectors of reproduction and are critical for upregulating female reproductive behavior or lordosis in females. In addition to the importance of transcriptional regulation of genes by 17beta-estradiol-bound estrogen receptors (ER), extranuclear signal transduction cascades such as protein kinase A (PKA) are also important in regulating female sexual receptivity. GPR30 (G-protein coupled receptor 30), also known as GPER1, a putative membrane ER (mER), is a G protein-coupled receptor that binds 17beta-estradiol with an affinity that is similar to that possessed by the classical nuclear ER and activates both PKA and extracellular-regulated kinase signaling pathways. The high expression of GPR30 in the ventromedial hypothalamus, a region important for lordosis behavior as well as kinase cascades activated by this receptor, led us to hypothesize that GPR30 may regulate lordosis behavior in female rodents. METHOD: In this study, we investigated the ability of G-1, a selective agonist of GPR30, to regulate lordosis in the female mouse by administering this agent prior to progesterone in an estradiol-progesterone priming paradigm prior to testing with stud males. RESULTS: As expected, 17beta-estradiol benzoate (EB), but not sesame oil, increased lordosis behavior in female mice. G-1 also increased lordosis behavior in female mice and decreased the number of rejective responses towards male mice, similar to the effect of EB. The selective GPR30 antagonist G-15 blocked these effects. CONCLUSION: This study demonstrates that activation of the mER GPR30 stimulates social behavior in a rodent model in a manner similar to EB.