Observed adaptation to climate change: UK evidence of transition to a well-adapting society

This paper investigates whether and to what extent a wide range of actors in the UK are adapting to climate change, and whether this is evidence of a social transition. We document evidence of over 300 examples of early adopters of adaptation practice to climate change in the UK. These examples span a range of activities from small adjustments (or coping) to building adaptive capacity, implementing actions and creating deeper systemic change in public and private organisations in a range of sectors. We find that adaptation in the UK has been dominated by government initiatives and has principally occurred in the form of research into climate change impacts. These actions within government stimulate a further set of actions at other scales in public agencies, regulatory agencies and regional government (or in the devolved administrations), though with little real evidence of climate change adaptation initiatives trickling down to local government level. The water supply and flood defence sectors, requiring significant investment in large scale infrastructure such as reservoirs and coastal defences, have invested more heavily in identifying potential impacts and adaptations. Economic sectors that are not dependent on large scale infrastructure appear to be investing far less effort and resources in preparing for climate change. We conclude that while the government-driven top-down targeted adaptation approach has generated anticipatory action at low cost, it may also have created enough niche activities to allow for diffusion of new adaptation practices in response to real or perceived climate change. These results have significant implications for how climate policy can be developed to support autonomous adaptors in the UK and other countries.

Free amino acids and sugars in rye grain: implications for acrylamide formation

Acrylamide forms from free asparagine and sugars during cooking, and products derived from the grain of cereals, including rye, contribute a large proportion of total dietary intake. In this study, free amino acid and sugar concentrations were measured in the grain of a range of rye varieties grown at locations in Hungary, France, Poland, and the United Kingdom and harvested in 2005, 2006, and 2007. Genetic and environmental (location and harvest year) effects on the levels of acrylamide precursors were assessed. The data showed free asparagine concentration to be the main determinant of acrylamide formation in heated rye flour, as it is in wheat. However, in contrast to wheat, sugar, particularly sucrose, concentration also correlated both with asparagine concentration and with acrylamide formed. Free asparagine concentration was shown to be under genetic (G), environmental (E), and integrated (G × E) control. The same was true for glucose, whereas maltose and fructose were affected mainly by environmental factors and sucrose was largely under genetic control. The ratio of variation due to varieties (genotype) to the total variation (a measure of heritability) for free asparagine concentration in the grain was 23%. Free asparagine concentration was closely associated with bran yield, whereas sugar concentration was associated with low Hagberg falling number. Rye grain was found to contain much higher concentrations of free proline than wheat grain, and less acrylamide formed per unit of asparagine in rye than in wheat flour.

Constructing Melchior Lorichs's 'Panorama of Constantinople'

In Constructing Melchior Lorichs's Panorama of Constantinople, Nigel Westbrook, Kenneth Rainsbury Dark, and Rene Van Meeuwen propose that Melchior Lorichs's 1559 Panorama of Constantinople was created by using a viewing grid. The panorama is thus a reliable graphic source for the lost or since-altered Ottoman and Byzantine buildings of the city. The panorama appears to lie outside the conventional symbolic mode of topographical depiction common for its period and constitutes a rare "scientific" record of an encounter of a perspicacious observer with a vast subject. The drawing combines elements of allegory with extensive empirical observation. Several unknown structures, shown on the drawing, have been located in relation to the present-day topography of Istanbul, as a test-case for further research.

Self-organising neural networks for adaptive control

Self-organizing neural networks have been implemented in a wide range of application areas such as speech processing, image processing, optimization and robotics. Recent variations to the basic model proposed by the authors enable it to order state space using a subset of the input vector and to apply a local adaptation procedure that does not rely on a predefined test duration limit. Both these variations have been incorporated into a new feature map architecture that forms an integral part of an Hybrid Learning System (HLS) based on a genetic-based classifier system. Problems are represented within HLS as objects characterized by environmental features. Objects controlled by the system have preset targets set against a subset of their features. The system's objective is to achieve these targets by evolving a behavioural repertoire that efficiently explores and exploits the problem environment. Feature maps encode two types of knowledge within HLS — long-term memory traces of useful regularities within the environment and the classifier performance data calibrated against an object's feature states and targets. Self-organization of these networks constitutes non-genetic-based (experience-driven) learning within HLS. This paper presents a description of the HLS architecture and an analysis of the modified feature map implementing associative memory. Initial results are presented that demonstrate the behaviour of the system on a simple control task.

Contracts and incentives in the construction sector

The aim of this chapter is to examine what the construction sector brings to our understanding of the procurement of complex performance. The chapter is divided into the following parts: fi rst, an overview of the various matters that contribute to the complexity of construction procurement is provided. Second, the most important contractual incentive schemes found in construction contracts are discussed, and this is followed by, third, an examination of the changes associated with the shift towards procuring complex performance (PCP) (service provision). Fourth, the main findings of the authors’ recent research on PCP contracts are summarised, followed by the conclusion. It should be noted that the procurement of services is referred to as ‘PCP’ in this chapter.

Eicosapentaenoic acid and docosahexaenoic acid from fish oils: differential associations with lipid responses

Fish-oil supplementation can reduce circulating triacylglycerol (TG) levels and cardiovascular risk. This study aimed to assess independent associations between changes in platelet eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) and fasting and postprandial (PP) lipoprotein concentrations and LDL oxidation status, following fish-oil intervention. Fiftyfive mildly hypertriacylglycerolaemic (TG 1·5–4·0 mmol/l) men completed a double-blind placebo controlled cross over study, where individuals consumed 6 g fish oil (3 g EPA � DHA) or 6 g olive oil (placebo)/d for two 6-week intervention periods, with a 12-week wash-out period in between. Fish-oil intervention resulted in a significant increase in the platelet phospholipid EPA (+491 %, P,0·001) and DHA (+44 %, P,0·001) content and a significant decrease in the arachidonic acid (210 %, P,0·001) and g-linolenic acid (224 %, P,0·001) levels. A 30% increase in ex vivo LDL oxidation (P,0·001) was observed. In addition, fish oil resulted in a significant decrease in fasting and PP TG levels (P,0·001), PP non-esterified fatty acid (NEFA) levels, and in the percentage LDL as LDL-3 (P�0·040), and an increase in LDLcholesterol (P�0·027). In multivariate analysis, changes in platelet phospholipid DHA emerged as being independently associated with the rise in LDL-cholesterol, accounting for 16% of the variability in this outcome measure (P�0·030). In contrast, increases in platelet EPA were independently associated with the reductions in fasting (P�0·046) and PP TG (P�0·023), and PP NEFA (P�0·015), explaining 15–20% and 25% of the variability in response respectively. Increases in platelet EPA � DHA were independently and positively associated with the increase in LDL oxidation (P�0·011). EPA and DHA may have differential effects on plasma lipids in mildly hypertriacylglycerolaemic men.

Dietary long-chain n-3 PUFAs increase LPL gene expression in adipose tissue of subjects with an atherogenic lipoprotein phenotype

We sought to test the hypothesis that dietary long-chain n-3 PUFA (LC n-3 PUFA) in fish oil stimulate the gene expression of lipoprotein lipase (LPL) in human adipose tissue (AT). In a randomized, double blind, placebo-controlled, cross-over study, 51 male subjects expressing an atherogenic lipoprotein phenotype (ALP) had their diets supplemented with fish oil for 6 weeks. As we previously reported for this group, supplementation with LC n-3 PUFA produced a decrease in fasting plasma triglyceride (TG) (−35%, P < 0.05), attenuation of the postprandial TG response (area and incremental area under the curve; AUC and IAUC, P < 0.05), and a decrease in small, dense LDL. The present study extended these observations by showing that these changes were accompanied by a marked increase in the concentration of LPL mRNA in adipose tissue (AT-LPL mRNA, +55%, P = 0.003) and post-heparin LPL activity (PH-LPL, +31%, P = 0.036). There was also evidence of an association between LPL gene expression and polymorphism in the apolipoprotein E gene. We conclude that the favorable influence of dietary n-3 PUFA on the ALP may be mediated, in part, through an increase in the plasma activity and gene expression of lipoprotein lipase in human adipose tissue.

UK Food Standards Agency alpha-linolenic acid workshop report

The UK Food Standards Agency convened a group of expert scientists to review current research investigating whether n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA) from plant oils (a-linolenic acid; ALA) were as beneficial to cardiovascular health as the n-3 PUFA from the marine oils, eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA). The workshop also aimed to establish priorities for future research. Dietary intake of ALA has been associated with a beneficial effect on CHD; however, the results from studies investigating the effects of ALA supplementation on CHD risk factors have proved equivocal. The studies presented as part of the present workshop suggested little, if any, benefit of ALA, relative to linoleic acid, on risk factors for cardiovascular disease; the effects observed with fish-oil supplementation were not replicated by ALA supplementation. There is a need, therefore, to first prove the efficacy of ALA supplementation on cardiovascular disease, before further investigating effects on cardiovascular risk factors. The workshop considered that a beneficial effect of ALA on the secondary prevention of CHD still needed to be established, and there was no reason to look further at existing CHD risk factors in relation to ALA supplementation. The workshop also highlighted the possibility of feeding livestock ALA-rich oils to provide a means of increasing the dietary intake in human consumers of EPA and DHA.

Lack of association between lipaemia and central adiposity in subjects with an atherogenic lipoprotein phenotype (ALP)

OBJECTIVE: To investigate the associations between indices of adiposity and cardiovascular risk factors in individuals with an atherogenic lipoprotein phenotype (ALP). SUBJECTS: Fifty-five men, aged 34-69 y, body mass index (BMI) 22-35 kg/m2, with an ALP lipid profile (triglycerides (TG) 1.5-4.0 mmol/l, HDL<1.1 mmol/l; %LDL-3>40% total LDL). DESIGN: Each participant provided a fasting blood sample and underwent an 8 h postprandial assessment and had anthropometric measurements taken. OUTCOME MEASURES: BMI, waist circumference (W), waist-to-hip ratio (W/H), sum of skinfolds (SSK), fasting and postprandial concentrations of glucose, insulin and plasma lipids, post-heparin lipase activity, and apoE genotype. RESULTS: The expected positive associations between BMI, W and SSK and fasting and postprandial insulin were observed (r=0.42-0.65). Little association between glucose responses and any measures of adiposity was evident. Unexpectedly, there were no positive associations between measures of central adiposity (W and W/H) and fasting and postprandial TG responses, with a trend towards negative associations in this study group (TG AUC vs W, r=-0.23, P=0.097; TG IAUC vs W/H, r=-0.26, P=0.068). Subgroup analysis indicated that lack of a positive association between central adiposity and postprandial TG values was more evident in those with one E4 allele (r=-0.42, P=0.077) relative to non-E4 carriers (r=-0.16, P=0.430). The expected positive associations between insulin and TG responses were not observed (r=-0.03 to -0.36). CONCLUSION: In this ALP group the expected positive association between TG responses and a centralized distribution of body fat was not observed, particularly in individuals with an apoE4 genotype. Our findings are not in line with the view that there is a clear causal relationship between insulin resistance and the lipid abnormalities associated with ALP.

ApoE polymorphism and fish oil supplementation in subjects with an antherogenic lipoprotein phenotype

The study assessed the efficacy of fish oil supplementation in counteracting the classic dyslipidemia of the atherogenic lipoprotein phenotype (ALP). In addition, the impact of the common apolipoprotein E (apoE) polymorphism on the fasting and postprandial lipid profile and on responsiveness to the dietary intervention was established. Fifty-five ALP males (aged 34 to 69 years, body mass index 22 to 35 kg/m2, triglyceride [TG] levels 1.5 to 4.0 mmol/L, high density lipoprotein cholesterol [HDL-C] <1.1 mmol/l, and percent low density lipoprotein [LDL]-3 >40% total LDL) completed a randomized placebo-controlled crossover trial of fish oil (3.0 g eicosapentaenoic acid/docosahexaenoic acid per day) and placebo (olive oil) capsules with the 6-week treatment arms separated by a 12-week washout period. In addition to fasting blood samples, at the end of each intervention arm, a postprandial assessment of lipid metabolism was carried out. Fish oil supplementation resulted in a reduction in fasting TG level of 35% (P<0.001), in postprandial TG response of 26% (TG area under the curve, P<0.001), and in percent LDL-3 of 26% (P<0.05). However, no change in HDL-C levels was evident (P=0.752). ANCOVA showed that baseline HDL-C levels were significantly lower in apoE4 carriers (P=0.035). The apoE genotype also had a striking impact on lipid responses to fish oil intervention. Individuals with an apoE2 allele displayed a marked reduction in postprandial incremental TG response (TG incremental area under the curve, P=0.023) and a trend toward an increase in lipoprotein lipase activity relative to non-E2 carriers. In apoE4 individuals, a significant increase in total cholesterol and a trend toward a reduction in HDL-C relative to the common homozygous E3/E3 profile was evident. Our data demonstrate the efficacy of fish oil fatty acids in counteracting the proatherogenic lipid profile of the ALP but also that the apoE genotype influences responsiveness to this dietary treatment.

Inter-relationships between small, dense low-density lipoprotein (LDL), plasma triacylglycerol and LDL apoprotein B in an atherogenic lipoprotein phenotype in free-living subjects

A predominance of small, dense low-density lipoprotein (LDL) is a major component of an atherogenic lipoprotein phenotype, and a common, but modifiable, source of increased risk for coronary heart disease in the free-living population. While much of the atherogenicity of small, dense LDL is known to arise from its structural properties, the extent to which an increase in the number of small, dense LDL particles (hyper-apoprotein B) contributes to this risk of coronary heart disease is currently unknown. This study reports a method for the recruitment of free-living individuals with an atherogenic lipoprotein phenotype for a fish-oil intervention trial, and critically evaluates the relationship between LDL particle number and the predominance of small, dense LDL. In this group, volunteers were selected through local general practices on the basis of a moderately raised plasma triacylglycerol (triglyceride) level (>1.5 mmol/l) and a low concentration of high-density-lipoprotein cholesterol (<1.1 mmol/l). The screening of LDL subclasses revealed a predominance of small, dense LDL (LDL subclass pattern B) in 62% of the cohort. As expected, subjects with LDL subclass pattern B were characterized by higher plasma triacylglycerol and lower high-density lipoprotein cholesterol (<1.1 mmol/l) levels and, less predictably, by lower LDL cholesterol and apoprotein B levels (P<0.05; LDL subclass A compared with subclass B). While hyper-apoprotein B was detected in only five subjects, the relative percentage of small, dense LDL-III in subjects with subclass B showed an inverse relationship with LDL apoprotein B (r=-0.57; P<0.001), identifying a subset of individuals with plasma triacylglycerol above 2.5 mmol/l and a low concentration of LDL almost exclusively in a small and dense form. These findings indicate that a predominance of small, dense LDL and hyper-apoprotein B do not always co-exist in free-living groups. Moreover, if coronary risk increases with increasing LDL particle number, these results imply that the risk arising from a predominance of small, dense LDL may actually be reduced in certain cases when plasma triacylglycerol exceeds 2.5 mmol/l.