Effect of linseed oil and fish oil alone or as an equal mixture of ruminal fatty acid metabolism in growing steers fed maize silage-based diets

Based on the potential benefits to human health there is interest in increasing 18:3n-3, 20:5n-3, 22:6n-6, and cis-9,trans-11 conjugated linoleic acid (CLA) in ruminant foods. Four Aberdeen Angus steers (406 ± 8.2 kg BW) fitted with rumen and duodenal cannulae were used in a 4 x 4 Latin square experiment with 21 d periods to examine the potential of fish oil (FO) and linseed oil (LO) in the diet to increase ruminal outflow of trans-11 18:1 and total n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA) in growing cattle. Treatments consisted of a control diet (60:40; forage:concentrate ratio, on a DM basis, respectively) based on maize silage, or the same basal ration containing 30 g/kg DM of FO, LO or a mixture (1:1, w/w) of FO and LO (LFO). Diets were offered as total mixed rations and fed at a rate of 85 g DM/kg BW0.75/d. Oils had no effect (P = 0.52) on DM intake. Linseed oil had no effect (P > 0.05) on ruminal pH or VFA concentrations, while FO shifted rumen fermentation towards propionate at the expense of acetate. Compared with the control, LO increased (P < 0.05) 18:0, cis 18:1 (Δ9, 12-15), trans 18:1 (Δ4-9, 11-16), trans 18:2, geometric isomers of ∆9,11, ∆11,13, and ∆13,15 CLA, trans-8,cis-10 CLA, trans-10,trans-12 CLA, trans-12,trans-14 CLA, and 18:3n-3 flow at the duodenum. Inclusion of FO in the diet resulted in higher (P < 0.05) flows of cis-9 16:1, trans 16:1 (Δ6-13), cis 18:1 (Δ9, 11, and 13), trans 18:1 (Δ6-15), trans 18:2, 20:5n-3, 22:5n-3, and 22:6n-3, and lowered (P < 0.001) 18:0 at the duodenum relative to the control. For most fatty acids at the duodenum responses to LFO were intermediate of FO and LO. However, LFO resulted in higher (P = 0.04) flows of total trans 18:1 than LO and increased (P < 0.01) trans-6 16:1 and trans-12 18:1 at the duodenum compared with FO or LO. Biohydrogenation of cis-9 18:1 and 18:2n-6 in the rumen was independent of treatment, but both FO and LO increased (P < 0.001) the extent of 18:3n-3 biohydrogenation compared with the control. Ruminal 18:3n-3 biohydrogenation was higher (P < 0.001) for LO and LFO than FO, while biohydrogenation of 20:5n-3 and 22:6n-3 in the rumen was marginally lower (P = 0.05) for LFO than FO. In conclusion, LO and FO at 30 g/kg DM altered the biohydrogenation of unsaturated fatty acids in the rumen causing an increase in the flow of specific intermediates at the duodenum, but the potential of these oils fed alone or as a mixture to increase n-3 PUFA at the duodenum in cattle appears limited.

A dynamic mechanistic model of lactic acid metabolism in the rumen

Current feed evaluation systems for ruminants are too imprecise to describe diets in terms of their acidosis risk. The dynamic mechanistic model described herein arises from the integration of a lactic acid (La) metabolism module into an extant model of whole-rumen function. The model was evaluated using published data from cows and sheep fed a range of diets or infused with various doses of La. The model performed well in simulating peak rumen La concentrations (coefficient of determination = 0.96; root mean square prediction error = 16.96% of observed mean), although frequency of sampling for the published data prevented a comprehensive comparison of prediction of time to peak La accumulation. The model showed a tendency for increased La accumulation following feeding of diets rich in nonstructural carbohydrates, although less-soluble starch sources such as corn tended to limit rumen La concentration. Simulated La absorption from the rumen remained low throughout the feeding cycle. The competition between bacteria and protozoa for rumen La suggests a variable contribution of protozoa to total La utilization. However, the model was unable to simulate the effects of defaunation on rumen La metabolism, indicating a need for a more detailed description of protozoal metabolism. The model could form the basis of a feed evaluation system with regard to rumen La metabolism.

Effect of variety, nitrogen fertiliser and various agronomic factors on the nutritive value of husked and naked oats grain

The effect of variety, agronomic and environmental factors on the chemical composition and energy value for ruminants and non-ruminants of husked and naked oats grain was studied. Winter oats were grown as experimental plots in each of 2 years on three sites in England. At each site two conventional husked oat cultivars (Gerald and Image) and two naked cultivars (Kynon and Pendragon) were grown. At each site, crops were sown on two dates and all crops were grown with the application of either zero or optimum fertiliser nitrogen. Variety and factors contained within the site + year effect had the greatest influence on the chemical composition and nutritive value of oats, followed by nitrogen ferfiliser treatment. For example, compared with zero nitrogen, the optimum nitrogen fertiliser treatment resulted in a consistent and significant (P < 0.001) increase in crude protein for all varieties at all sites from an average of 95 to 118 g kg(-1) DM, increased the potassium concentration in all varieties from an average of 4.9 to 5.1 g kg(-1) DM (P < 0.01) and reduced total lipid by a small but significant (P < 0.001) amount. Optimum nitrogen increased (P < 0.001) the NDF concentration in the two husked varieties and in the naked variety Pendragon. Naked cultivars were lower in fibre, had considerably higher energy, total lipid, linoleic acid, protein, starch and essential amino acids than the husked cultivars. Thus nutritionists need to be selective in their choice of naked or husked oat depending on the intended dietary use. (C) 2004 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Quantification of ruminal Clostridium proteoclasticum by real-time PCR using a molecular beacon approach

Aims: All members of the ruminal Butyrivibrio group convert linoleic acid (cis-9,cis-12-18 : 2) via conjugated 18 : 2 metabolites (mainly cis-9,trans-11-18 : 2, conjugated linoleic acid) to vaccenic acid (trans-11-18 : 1), but only members of a small branch, which includes Clostridium proteoclasticum, of this heterogeneous group further reduce vaccenic acid to stearic acid (18 : 0, SA). The aims of this study were to develop a real-time polymerase chain reaction (PCR) assay that would detect and quantify these key SA producers and to use this method to detect diet-associated changes in their populations in ruminal digesta of lactating cows. Materials and Results: The use of primers targeting the 16S rRNA gene of Cl. proteoclasticum was not sufficiently specific when only binding dyes were used for detection in real-time PCR. Their sequences were too similar to some nonproducing strains. A molecular beacon probe was designed specifically to detect and quantify the 16S rRNA genes of the Cl. proteoclasticum subgroup. The probe was characterized by its melting curve and validated using five SA-producing and ten nonproducing Butyrivibrio-like strains and 13 other common ruminal bacteria. Analysis of ruminal digesta collected from dairy cows fed different proportions of starch and fibre indicated a Cl. proteoclasticum population of 2-9% of the eubacterial community. The influence of diet on numbers of these bacteria was less than variations between individual cows. Conclusion: A molecular beacon approach in qPCR enables the detection of Cl. proteoclasticum in ruminal digesta. Their numbers are highly variable between individual animals. Signifance and Impact of the Study: SA producers are fundamental to the flow of polyunsaturated fatty acid and vaccenic acid from the rumen. The method described here enabled preliminary information to be obtained about the size of this population. Further application of the method to digesta samples from cows fed diets of more variable composition should enable us to understand how to control these bacteria in order to enhance the nutritional characteristics of ruminant-derived foods, including milk and beef.

Association of n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids with stability of atherosclerotic plaques: a randomised controlled trial

Background N-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs) from oily fish protect against death from cardiovascular disease. We aimed to assess the hypothesis that incorporation of n-3 and n-6 PUFAs into advanced atherosclerotic plaques increases and decreases plaque stability, respectively. Methods We did a randomised controlled trial of patients awaiting carotid endarterectomy. We randomly allocated patients control, sunflower oil (n-6), or fish-oil (n-3) capsules until surgery. Primary outcome was plaque morphology indicative of stability or instability, and outcome measures were concentrations of EPA, DHA, and linoleic acid in carotid plaques; plaque morphology; and presence of macrophages in plaques. Analysis was per protocol. Findings 188 patients were enrolled and randomised; 18 withdrew and eight were excluded. Duration of oil treatment was 7-189 days (median 42) and did not differ between groups. The proportions of EPA and DHA were higher in carotid plaque fractions in patients receiving fish oil compared with those receiving control (absolute difference 0.5 [95% CI 0.3-0.7], 0.4 [0.1-0.6], and 0.2 [0.1-0.4] g/100 g total fatty acids for EPA; and 0.3 [0.0-0.8], 0.4 [0.1-0.7], and 0.3 [0.1-0.6] g/100 g total fatty acids for DHA; in plaque phospholipids, cholesteryl esters, and triacylglycerols, respectively). Sunflower oil had little effect on the fatty acid composition of lipid fractions. Fewer plaques from patients being treated with fish oil had thin fibrous caps and signs of inflammation and more plaques had thick fibrous caps and no signs of inflammation, compared with plaques in patients in the control and sunflower oil groups (odds ratio 0.52 [95% CI 0.24-0.89] and 1.19 [1.02-1.57] vs control; 0.49 [0.23-0.90] and 1.16 [1.01-1.53] vs sunflower oil). The number of macrophages in plaques from patients receiving fish oil was lower than in the other two groups. Carotid plaque morphology and infiltration by macrophages did not differ between control and sunflower oil groups. Interpretation Atherosclerotic plaques readily incorporate n-3 PUFAs from fish-oil supplementation, inducing changes that can enhance stability of atherosclerotic plaques. By contrast, increased consumption of n-6 PUFAs does not affect carotid plaque fatty-acid composition or stability over the time course studied here. Stability of plaques could explain reductions in non-fatal and fatal cardiovascular events associated with increased n-3 PUFA intake.

Volatile compounds produced by the probiotic strain Lactobacillus plantarum NCIMB 8826 in cereal-based substrates

The production of volatile compounds by the probiotic strain, Lactobacillus plantarum NCIMB 8826, in cereal-based media (oat, wheat. barley and malt) was investigated. Sixty compounds, including fatty acids and their esters, amides, alcohols, aldehydes, aromatic hydrocarbons, furans, ketones, peroxides and pyrans, were identified. L. plantarum significantly changed the aroma profile of the four cereal broths. and each substrate showed a specific volatiles profile. Oat and barley media were the substrates more influenced by the fermentation process. The most abundant volatiles detected in oat, wheat, barley and malt were oleic acid, linoleic acid. acetic acid, and 5-hydroxymethylfurfural, respectively. Analysis of these products confirmed the heterofermentative pathway of L plantarum. Maillard compounds were not detected during sterilisation and fermentation. This study is the first to report the volatile composition of probiotic drinks produce with non-supplemented cereal-based media and the results obtained could contribute to the development of new non-dairy probiotic formulations. (C) 2009 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Analysis of the headspace aroma compounds of walnuts (Juglans regia L.)

The aroma volatiles of walnuts from three different geographical locations were studied. Over 110 compounds were identified in the headspace volatiles, many for the first time as walnut components. Walnuts from China and the Ukraine contained high levels of lipid-derived volatiles, in particular hexanal, pentanal, 1-hexanol and 1-pentanol from linoleic acid breakdown, and 1-penten-3-ol from alpha-linolenic acid breakdown. Chilean walnuts, however, contained high levels of alkylbenzenes of molecular weight 120, with the lipid-derived aldehydes and alcohols present at much lower levels than in the other two walnut samples. The relationship between the fatty acid composition of the walnuts and their volatile composition is discussed. Copyright (C) 2005 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

The effects of diet, breed and age of animal at slaughter on the aroma compounds of grilled beef

The aroma volatiles of grilled beef, from animals fed either grass silage or cereal concentrates, were compared. Aberdeen Angus and Holstein-Friesian cross-breed steers, slaughtered at 14 or 24 months, were studied. Compounds formed from linoleic acid, in particular 2-pentylfuran, 1-octen-3-ol, (Z)-2-octen-1-ol, and hexanal were at higher levels in the meat from the animals fed concentrates. Phytenes and compounds formed from α-linolenic acid, in particular 1-penten-3-ol and (Z)-2-penten-1-ol, were at higher levels in the meat of animals fed silage. Differences due to breed were small and not consistent with slaughter age. Dimethyl disulfide, dimethyl disulfide and phenol were at higher levels in the meat of animals slaughtered at 24 months and may contribute to grilled beef aroma.

Characterisation of virgin olive oil of Italian olive cultivars: 'Frantoio' and 'Leccino', grown in Andalusia

Work was carried out on the characterisation of virgin olive oils from the main Italian cultivars, 'Frantoio' and 'Leccino', grown in two different locations in Andalusia: Mengibar (Jaen) and Cabra (Cordoba), with important differences in altitude. The study was carried out during the crop years 1999/2000 and 2001/2002. There were significant differences between the oils from both cultivars when grown in the different environments, Cabra close to the hills and Mengibar in the open at 280 m height. At higher altitude, the oils showed a greater content of oleic acid and higher stability, while in the open the oils had higher tocopherol and linoleic acid contents. For the phenolic compounds, the environment influenced each cultivar in different ways. Sensorial characteristics, showed significant differences between the oils from each cultivar and location. In general, the oils from Andalusia had higher levels of natural antioxidants, greater oxidative stability and more marked sensorial characters. (C) 2004 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Heat-inactivated peroxidases and the role of calcium abstraction as a cause of their enhanced lipid oxidation activity: potential effects on the flavour quality of heat-processed vegetables

Cationic swede and anionic turnip peroxidases were partially purified by ion-exchange and gel-filtration chromatography, respectively. Heat treatment of these enzymes and of a commercial high purity horseradish peroxidase (HRP) caused a loss of enzyme activity and a corresponding increase in linoleic acid hydroperoxide formation activity. The hydroperoxide levels in model systems increased only in the early stages of the oxidation reaction and then declined as degradation became more significant. The presence of a dialysed blend of cooked swede markedly lowered the hydroperoxide level formed. Analysis of volatile compounds formed showed that hexanal predominated in a buffer system and in a blend of cooked turnip. In dialysed blends of cooked swede, hexanol was the primary volatile compound generated. After inactivation under mild conditions in the presence of EDTA, the peroxidases showed hydroperoxide formation activity and patterns of volatile compounds from linoleic acid that were similar to those found on heat-inactivation. This suggested that calcium abstraction from the peroxidases was critical for the enhancement of lipid oxidation activity. (C) 2002 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved.

Improving the nutritional quality of milk

Epidemiological evidence suggests high milk consumption protects against certain chronic diseases, and yet the high saturated fatty acid (SFA) concentration of milk fat has lead to research into reducing SFA and trans- fatty acid content, and enhancing conjugated linoleic acid (CLA) content. The most successful method of reducing SFA content is by feeding dairy cows supplemental oilseeds, although amount, type and form of oilseed influence the degree of effect. Also, the high unsaturated fatty acid content of oilseeds leads to increases in milk fat trans- fatty acids unless the oilseed is protected from rumen metabolism.

Use of Megasphaera elsdenii NCIMB41125 as a probiotic for early-lactation dairy cows: effects on rumen pH and fermentation patterns

Multiparous rumen-fistulated Holstein cows were fed, from d 1 to 28 post-calving, an ad libitum TMR containing (g/kg DM) grass silage (196), corn silage (196), wheat (277), soybean meal (100), and other feeds (231) with CP, NDF, starch and water soluble carbohydrate concentrations of 176, 260, 299 and 39 g/kg DM respectively and ME of 12.2 MJ/kg DM. Treatments consisting of a minimum of 1010 cfu Megasphaera elsdenii NCIMB 41125 in 250 ml solution (MEGA) or 250 ml of autoclaved M. elsdenii (CONT) were administered via the rumen cannula on d 3 and 12 of lactation (n=7 per treatment). Mid-rumen pH was measured every 15 minutes and eating and ruminating behavior was recorded for 24 h on d 2, 4, 6, 8, 11, 13, 15, 17, 22 and 28. Rumen fluid for VFA and lactic acid (LA) analysis was collected at 11 timepoints on each of d 2, 4, 6, 13 and 15. Data were analysed as repeated measures using the Glimmix (LA data) or Mixed (all other data) procedures of SAS with previous 305 d milk yield and d 2 measurements as covariates where appropriate. Milk yield was higher (CONT 43.0 vs MEGA 45.4 ±0.75 kg/d, P=0.051) and fat concentration was lower (CONT 45.6 vs MEGA 40.4 ±1.05 g/kg, P=0.005) in cows that received MEGA. Time spent eating (263 ±15 min/d) and ruminating (571 ±13 min/d), DM intake (18.4 ±0.74 kg/d), proportion of each 24 h period with rumen pH below 5.6 (3.69 ±0.94 h) and LA concentrations (2.00 mM) were similar (P>0.327) across treatments. Ruminal total VFA concentration (104 ±3 mM) was similar (P=0.404) across treatments, but a shift from acetate (CONT 551 vs MEGA 524 ±14 mmol/mol VFA, P=0.161) to propionate production (CONT 249 vs MEGA 275 ±11 mmol/mol VFA, P=0.099) meant that the acetate:propionate ratio (CONT 2.33 vs MEGA 1.94 ±0.15) was reduced (P=0.072) in cows that received MEGA. This study provides evidence that supplementation of early lactation dairy cows with MEGA alters rumen fermentation patterns in favour of propionate, with potential benefits for animal health and productivity.

Dietary fatty acids and human health

A considerable amount of evidence has accumulated to support the view that the very long chain omega 3 fatty acids (eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA)) have beneficial cardiovascular and anti-inflammatory properties and that levels of their consumption are insufficient in most Western diets. More recently, attention has been given to the possibility that the precursor omega-3 PUFA, alpha linolenic acid (ALNA), may share some of the beneficial actions of EPA/DHA on human health. Further research into the metabolism and physiological actions of ALNA, and comparisons with EPA/DHA, is needed before conclusions regarding the optimal amounts and types of omega-3 PUFA for human health can be defined. Conjugated linoleic acid (CLA), which arises as a metabolic by-product of rumen hydrogenation and which is found in foods of animal origin, has been proposed to possess potent health promoting properties, but much of this research has been conducted in experimental animals. There is an urgent need for complementary studies in human volunteers, to confirm the putative anti-carcinogenic, anti-atherogenic, anti-lipogenic and immuno-suppressive properties of CLA.

Sensory and instrumental analyses of volatiles generated during the extrusion cooking of oat flours

Three batches of oats were extruded under four combinations of process temperature (150 or 180 °C) and process moisture (14.5 and 18%). Two of the extrudates were evaluated by a sensory panel, and three were analyzed by GC-MS. Maillard reaction products, such as pyrazines, pyrroles, furans, and sulfur-containing compounds, were found in the most severely processed extrudates (high-temperature, low-moisture). These extrudates were also described by the assessors as having toasted cereal attributes. Lipid degradation products, such as alkanals, 2-alkenals, and 2,4-alkadienals, were found at much higher levels in the extrudates of the oat flour that had been debranned. It contained lower protein and fiber levels than the others and showed increased lipase activity. Extrudates from these samples also had significantly lower levels of Maillard reaction products that correlated, in the sensory analysis, with terms such as stale oil and oatmeal. Linoleic acid was added to a fourth oat flour to simulate the result of increased lipase activity, and GC-MS analysis showed both an increase in lipid degradation products and a decrease in Maillard reaction products.

Synthesis of novel hyperbranched polymers featuring oxazoline linear units and their application in fast-drying solvent-borne coating formulations

Novel acid-terminated hyperbranched polymers (HBPs) containing adipic acid and oxazoline monomers derived from oleic and linoleic acid have been synthesized via a bulk polymerization procedure. Branching was achieved as a consequence of an acid-catalyzed opening of the oxazoline ring to produce a trifunctional monomer in situ which delivered branching levels of >45% as determined by 1H and 13C NMR spectroscopy. The HBPs were soluble in common solvents, such as CHCl3, acetone, tetrahydrofuran, dimethylformamide, and dimethyl sulfoxide and were further functionalized by addition of citronellol to afford white-spirit soluble materials that could be used in coating formulations. During end group modification, a reduction in branching levels of the HBPs (down to 12–24%) was observed, predominantly on account of oxazoline ring reformation and trans-esterification processes under the reaction conditions used. In comparison to commercial alkyd resin paint coatings, formulations of the citronellol-functionalized hyperbranched materials blended with a commercial alkyd resin exhibited dramatic decreases of the blend viscosity when the HBP content was increased. The curing characteristics of the HBP/alkyd blend formulations were studied by dynamic mechanical analysis which revealed that the new coatings cured more quickly and produced tougher materials than otherwise identical coatings prepared from only the commercial alkyd resins.