Food consumption impacts of adherence to dietary norms in the United States: a quantitative assessment

Promotion of adherence to healthy-eating norms has become an important element of nutrition policy in the United States and other developed countries. We assess the potential consumption impacts of adherence to a set of recommended dietary norms in the United States using a mathematical programming approach. We find that adherence to recommended dietary norms would involve significant changes in diets, with large reductions in the consumption of fats and oils along with large increases in the consumption of fruits, vegetables, and cereals. Compliance with norms recommended by the World Health Organization for energy derived from sugar would involve sharp reductions in sugar intakes. We also analyze how dietary adjustments required vary across demographic groups. Most socio-demographic characteristics appear to have relatively little influence on the pattern of adjustment required to comply with norms, Income levels have little effect on required dietary adjustments. Education is the only characteristic to have a significant influence on the magnitude of adjustments required. The least educated rather than the poorest have to bear the highest burden of adjustment. Out- analysis suggests that fiscal measures like nutrient-based taxes may not be as regressive as commonly believed. Dissemination of healthy-eating norms to the less educated will be a key challenge for nutrition policy.

Food consumption impacts of adherence to dietary norms in the United States: a quantitative assessment

Promotion of adherence to healthy-eating norms has become an important element of nutrition policy in the United States and other developed countries. We assess the potential consumption impacts of adherence to a set of recommended dietary norms in the United States using a mathematical programming approach. We find that adherence to recommended dietary norms would involve significant changes in diets, with large reductions in the consumption of fats and oils along with large increases in the consumption of fruits, vegetables, and cereals. Compliance with norms recommended by the World Health Organization for energy derived from sugar would involve sharp reductions in sugar intakes. We also analyze how dietary adjustments required vary across demographic groups. Most socio-demographic characteristics appear to have relatively little influence on the pattern of adjustment required to comply with norms, Income levels have little effect on required dietary adjustments. Education is the only characteristic to have a significant influence on the magnitude of adjustments required. The least educated rather than the poorest have to bear the highest burden of adjustment. Out- analysis suggests that fiscal measures like nutrient-based taxes may not be as regressive as commonly believed. Dissemination of healthy-eating norms to the less educated will be a key challenge for nutrition policy.

An assessment of the potential consumption impacts of WHO dietary norms in OECD countries

The member countries of the World Health Organization (WHO) have recently endorsed its global strategy on diet, physical activity and health. The strategy emphasises the need to limit the consumption of saturated fats and trans-fatty acids, salt and sugars, and to increase consumption of fruits and vegetables in order to combat the growing burden of non-communicable diseases. This paper attempts a broad quantitative assessment of the consumption impacts of these norms in OECD countries using a mathematical programming approach. We find that adherence to the WHO norms would involve a significant decrease in the consumption of vegetable oils (30%), dairy products (28%), sugar (24%), animal fats (30%) and meat (pig meat, 13.5%, mutton and goat 14.5%) and a significant increase in the human consumption of cereals (31%), fruits (25%) and vegetables (21%). (c) 2005 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Budgetary implications of, and motives for, converting to organic farming: Case study farm business evidence from Great Britain

This paper explores the financial implications of converting to organic farming in Great Britain through a case study of farmers considering conversion in 2002. Most study farmers were motivated to convert for financial, not ideological or life-style reasons; organic meat production was the most common planned enterprise, although those choosing to produce milk, vegetables and cereals were also studied in depth. At the time of study, organic beef and sheep meat production was particularly profitable. It was found that, in these product sectors, a large improvement in Family Farm Income would result if organic production was introduced on the case study farms. With few exceptions, a fall in Family Farm Income during the conversion period would not be an obstacle to farmers changing to organic methods. Fixed cost changes would also not deter conversion but expensive investment in new livestock and appropriate buildings would be required by some of those businesses studied. These findings are, however, dependent upon the price premia assumptions used and, whilst these premia have dropped slightly since the time of study, this would lessen the financial shortfall during the conversion period. There is also the possibility that reversion to conventional agricultural production might occur, perhaps at a faster rate than the original conversion process that was taking place around the turn of the century.

Patents and Haploid Plants

One of the important themes in any discussion concerning the application of haploids in agricultural biotechnology or elsewhere is the role of Intellectual Property Rights (IPR). This term covers both the content of patents and the confidential expertise, usually related to methodology and referred to as "Trade Secrets". This review will explain the concepts behind patent protection, and will use the international patent databases to analyse the content of these patents and trends over the last 20 years. This analysis from regions including North America, Europe, and Asia reveals a total of more than 30 granted patents and a larger number of applications. The first of these patents dates from 1986, and although the peak of activity was in the late 1990s, there has been continuous interest to the present day. The subject matter of these patents and applications covers methods for anther and pollen culture, ovule culture, the use of specific haploid-inducing genes, the use of haploids as transformation targets, and the exploitation of genes that regulate embryo development. The species mentioned include cereals, vegetables, flowers, spices and trees.

Validation of a FFQ for estimating whole-grain cereal food intake

Estimation of whole-grain (WG) food intake in epidemiological and nutritional studies is normally based on general diet FFQ, which are not designed to specifically capture WG intake. To estimate WG cereal intake, we developed a forty-three-item FFQ focused on cereal product intake over the past month. We validated this questionnaire against a 3-d-weighed food record (3DWFR) in thirty-one subjects living in the French-speaking part of Switzerland (nineteen female and twelve male). Subjects completed the FFQ on day 1 (FFQ1), the 3DWFR between days 2 and 13 and the FFQ again on day 14 (FFQ2). The subjects provided a fasting blood sample within 1 week of FFQ2. Total cereal intake, total WG intake, intake of individual cereals, intake of different groups of cereal products and alkylresorcinol (AR) intake were calculated from both FFQ and the 3DWFR. Plasma AR, possible biomarkers for WG wheat and rye intake were also analysed. The total WG intake for the 3DWFR, FFQ1, FFQ2 was 26 (sd 22), 28 (sd 25) and 21 (sd 16) g/d, respectively. Mean plasma AR concentration was 55.8 (sd 26.8) nmol/l. FFQ1, FFQ2 and plasma AR were correlated with the 3DWFR (r 0.72, 0.81 and 0.57, respectively). Adjustment for age, sex, BMI and total energy intake did not affect the results. This FFQ appears to give a rapid and adequate estimate of WG cereal intake in free-living subjects.

Biodiversity of human faecal bacteria isolated from phytic acid enriched chemostat fermenters

Background: Myo-inositol hexaphosphate (IP6) or phytic acid is found mostly in cereals and legumes and is thought to possess anti-carcinogenic properties. Aim: To isolate and identify faecal bacteria capable of phytic acid metabolism and to assess the effectiveness of prebiotics (dietary oligosaccharides, metabolised by selective colonic bacteria) in preserving the integrity of phytic acid. Methods: Faecal samples from three volunteers were used in continuous culture experiments under varying conditions of pH, substrate concentration and dilution rates, seventy three different isolates cultured at steady state were then screened for phytic acid metabolism and identified through partial sequencing of their 16S rRNA genes (16S ribosomal ribonucleic acid). Utilisation of phytic acid was also assessed in a continuous culture system enriched with prebiotic fructooligosaccharides (FOS). Results: Bacteroides spp., Clostridium spp. and facultatively anaerobic bacteria generally appeared to maintain viable counts in the presence of phytic acid. Bifidobacterium spp. and Lactobacillus spp. appeared less able to maintain viable counts in the presence of phytic acid. These results were confirmed by an increase in viable counts of Bacteroides spp., Clostridium spp. and a decrease in viable counts of Bifidobacterium spp. and Lactobacillus spp. once phytic acid was introduced to a FOS enriched continuous culture. Conclusions: The phytate metabolising biodiversity from the human large intestine does not appear to encompass major bacterial genera associated with beneficial or benign health effects (e.g. Lactobacillus spp. and Bifidobacterium spp).

Effect of dietary phytate and microbial phytase on mineral and trace element bioavailability- a literature review

Phytic acid (PA) is the main phosphorus storage compound in cereals, legumes and oil seeds. In human populations where phytate-rich cereals such as wheat, maize and rice are a staple food, phytate may lead to mineral and trace element deficiency. Zinc appears to be the trace element whose bioavailability is most influenced by PA. Furthermore, several studies in humans as well as in monogastric animals clearly indicate an inhibition of non-haem iron absorption at marginal iron supply due to phytic acid. In fact PA seems to be, at least partly, responsible for the low absorption efficiency and high incidence of iron deficiency anaemia evident in most developing countries, where largely vegetarian diets are consumed Microbial phytases have provided a realistic means of improving mineral availability from traditionally high-phytate diets. In fact it has been consistently shown that Aspergillus phytases significantly enhance the absorption of calcium, magnesium and zinc in pigs and rats. Furthermore there are a few studies in humans indicating an improvement of iron bioavailability due to microbial phytase.

Potential prebiotic activity of oligosaccharides obtained by enzymatic conversion of durum wheat insoluble dietary fibre into soluble dietary fibre

Background and aims: Epidemiological evidence indicates that cereal dietary fibre (DF) may have several cardiovascular health benefits. The underlying mechanisms have not yet been elucidated. Here, the potential nutritional effects of physico-chemical. properties modifications of durum wheat dietary fibre (DWF) induced by enzyme treatment have been investigated. Methods and results: The conversion of the highly polymerised insoluble dietary fibre into soluble feruloyl oligosaccharides of DWF was achieved by a tailored enzymatic treatment. The in vitro fermentation and release of ferulic acid by intestinal microbiota from DWF before and after the enzymatic treatment were assessed using a gut model validated to mimic the human colonic microbial environment. Results demonstrated that, compared to DWF, the enzyme-treated DWF (ETD-WF) stimulated the growth of bifidobacteria and lactobacilli. Concurrently, the release of free ferulic acid by ET-DWF was almost three times higher respect to the control. No effect on the formation of short chain fatty acids was observed. Conclusions: The conversion of insoluble dietary fibre from cereals into soluble dietary fibre generated a gut microbial fermentation that supported bifidobacteria and lactobacilli. The concurrent increase in free ferulic acid from the enzyme-treated DWF might result in a higher plasma ferulic acid concentration which could be one of the reasons for the health benefits reported for dietary fibre in cardiovascular diseases. (c) 2008 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Soya isoflavone-enriched cereal bars affect markers of endothelial function in postmenopausal women

Soya isoflavones are thought to be cardioprotective due to their structural similarity to oestrogen. In order to investigate the effect of soya isoflavones on markers of endothelial function we conducted a randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled, cross-over study with thirty healthy postmenopausal women. The women consumed cereal bars, with or without soya isoflavones (50 mg/d), for 8 weeks, separated by an 8-week washout period. Systemic arterial complince (SAC), isobaric arterial compliance (IAC), flow-mediated endothelium-dependent vasodilation (FMD) and nitroglycerine-mediated endothelium-independent vasodilation (NMD) were measured at the beginning of the study and after each intervention period. Blood pressure (BP) and plasma concentrations of nitrite and nitrate (NOx) and endothelin-1 (ET-1) were measured at the beginning and end of each intervention period. NMD was 13.4 (sem 2.0) % at baseline and 15.5 (sem 1.1) % after isoflavone treatment compared with 12.4 (sem 1.0) % after placebo treatment (P=0.03). NOx increased from 27.7 (sem 2.7) to 31.1 (sem 3.2) mu m after isoflavones treatment compared with 25.4 (sem 1.5) to 20.4 (sem 1.1) mu m after placebo treatment (P=0.003) and a significant increase in the NOx:ET-1 ratio (P=0.005) was observed after the isoflavone treatment compared with placebo. A significant difference in SAC after the isoflavone and placebo treatment was observed (P=0.04). No significant difference was found in FMD, IAC, BP and ET-1. In conclusion, 8 weeks' consumption of cereals bars enriched with 50 mg soya isoflavones/d increased plasma NOx concentrations and improved endothelium-independent vasodilation in healthy postmenopausal women.

Whole-grain wheat breakfast cereal has a prebiotic effect on the human gut microbiota: a double-blind, placebo-controlled, crossover study

Epidemiological studies have shown an inverse association between dietary intake of whole grains and the risk of chronic disease. This may be related to the ability to mediate a prebiotic modulation of gut microbiota. However, no studies have been conducted on the microbiota modulatory capability of whole-grain (WG) cereals. In the present study, the impact of WG wheat on the human intestinal microbiota compared to wheat bran (WB) was determined. A double-blind, randomised, crossover study was carried out in thirty-one volunteers who were randomised into two groups and consumed daily 48g breakfast cereals, either WG or WB, in two 3-week study periods, separated by a 2-week washout period. Numbers of faecal bifidobacteria and lactobacilli (the target genera for prebiotic intake), were significantly higher upon WG ingestion compared with WB. Ingestion of both breakfast cereals resulted in a significant increase in ferulic acid concentrations in blood but no discernible difference in faeces or urine. No significant differences in faecal SCFA, fasting blood glucose, insulin, total cholesterol (TC), TAG or HDL-cholesterol were observed upon ingestion of WG compared with WB. However, a significant reduction in TC was observed in volunteers in the top quartile of TC concentrations upon ingestion of either cereal. No adverse intestinal symptoms were reported and WB ingestion increased stool frequency. Daily consumption of WG wheat exerted a pronounced prebiotic effect on the human gut microbiota composition. This prebiotic activity may contribute towards the beneficial physiological effects of WG wheat.

Free amino acids and sugars in rye grain: implications for acrylamide formation

Acrylamide forms from free asparagine and sugars during cooking, and products derived from the grain of cereals, including rye, contribute a large proportion of total dietary intake. In this study, free amino acid and sugar concentrations were measured in the grain of a range of rye varieties grown at locations in Hungary, France, Poland, and the United Kingdom and harvested in 2005, 2006, and 2007. Genetic and environmental (location and harvest year) effects on the levels of acrylamide precursors were assessed. The data showed free asparagine concentration to be the main determinant of acrylamide formation in heated rye flour, as it is in wheat. However, in contrast to wheat, sugar, particularly sucrose, concentration also correlated both with asparagine concentration and with acrylamide formed. Free asparagine concentration was shown to be under genetic (G), environmental (E), and integrated (G × E) control. The same was true for glucose, whereas maltose and fructose were affected mainly by environmental factors and sucrose was largely under genetic control. The ratio of variation due to varieties (genotype) to the total variation (a measure of heritability) for free asparagine concentration in the grain was 23%. Free asparagine concentration was closely associated with bran yield, whereas sugar concentration was associated with low Hagberg falling number. Rye grain was found to contain much higher concentrations of free proline than wheat grain, and less acrylamide formed per unit of asparagine in rye than in wheat flour.

Modelling the likely impact of healthy eating guidelines on agricultural production and land use in England and Wales

Quadratic programming techniques were applied to household food consumption data in England and Wales to estimate likely changes in diet under healthy eating guidelines, and the consequences this would have on agriculture and land use in England and Wales. The first step entailed imposing nutrient restrictions on food consumption following dietary recommendations suggested by the UK Department of Health. The resulting diet was used, in a second step as a proxy for demand in agricultural commodities, to test the impact of such a scenario on food production and land use in England and Wales and the impacts of this on agricultural landscapes. Results of the diet optimisation indicated a large drop in consumption of foods rich in saturated fats and sugar, essentially cheese and sugar-based products, along with lesser cuts of fat and meat products. Conversely, consumption of fruit and vegetables, cereals, and flour would increase to meet dietary fibre recommendations. Such a shift in demand would dramatically affect production patterns: the financial net margin of England and Wales agriculture would rise, due to increased production of high market value and high economic margin crops. Some regions would, however, be negatively affected, mostly those dependent on beef cattle and sheep production that could not benefit from an increased demand for cereals and horticultural crops. The effects of these changes would also be felt in upstream industries, such as animal feed suppliers. While arable dominated landscapes would be little affected, pastoral landscapes would suffer through loss of grazing management and, possibly, land abandonment, especially in upland areas.

Determination of the in vivo prebiotic potential of a maize based wholegrain breakfast cereal: a human feeding study

Epidemiological studies have shown an inverse relationship between risk of CVD and intake of whole grain (WG)-rich food. Regular consumption of breakfast cereals can provide not only an increase in dietary WG but also improvements to cardiovascular health. Various mechanisms have been proposed, including prebiotic modulation of the colonic microbiota. In the present study, the prebiotic activity of a maize-derived WG cereal (WGM) was evaluated in a double-blind, placebo-controlled human feeding study (n 32). For a period of 21 d, healthy men and women, mean age 32 (sd 8) years and BMI 23·3 (sd 0·58) kg/m2, consumed either 48 g/d WG cereal (WGM) or 48 g placebo cereal (non-whole grain (NWG)) in a crossover fashion. Faecal samples were collected at five points during the study on days 0, 21, 42, 63 and 84 (representing at baseline, after both treatments and both wash-out periods). Faecal bacteriology was assessed using fluorescence in situ hybridisation with 16S rRNA oligonucleotide probes specific for Bacteroides spp., Bifidobacterium spp., Clostridium histolyticum/perfringens subgroup, Lactobacillus–Enterococcus subgroup and total bacteria. After 21 d consumption of WGM, mean group levels of faecal bifidobacteria increased significantly compared with the control cereal (P = 0·001). After a 3-week wash-out period, bifidobacterial levels returned to pre-intervention levels. No statistically significant changes were observed in serum lipids, glucose or measures of faecal output. In conclusion, this WG maize-enriched breakfast cereal mediated a bifidogenic modulation of the gut microbiota, indicating a possible prebiotic mode of action

Lipid binding interactions of antimicrobial plant seed defence proteins: puroindoline-a and β-purothionin

The indolines and thionins are basic, amphiphilic and cysteine-rich proteins found in cereals; puroindoline-a (Pin-a) and β-purothionin (β-Pth) are members of these families in wheat (Triticum aestivum). Pin-a and β-Pth have been suggested to play a significant role in seed defence against microbial pathogens, making the interaction of these proteins with model bacterial membranes an area of potential interest. We have examined the binding of these proteins to lipid monolayers composed of 1,2-dipalmitoyl-sn-glycero-3-phospho-(1'-rac-glycerol) (DPPG) using a combination of neutron reflectometry, Brewster angle microscopy, and infrared spectroscopy. Results showed that both Pin-a and β-Pth interact strongly with condensed phase DPPG monolayers, but the degree of penetration was different. β-Pth was shown to penetrate the lipid acyl chain region of the monolayer and remove lipids from the air/liquid interface during the adsorption process, suggesting this protein may be able to both form membrane spanning ion channels and remove membrane phospholipids in its lytic activity. Conversely, Pin-a was shown to interact mainly with the head-group region of the condensed phase DPPG monolayer and form a 33 Å thick layer below the lipid film. The differences between the interfacial structures formed by these two proteins may be related to the differing composition of the Pin-a and β-Pth hydrophobic regions.