Identification of mutations conferring insecticide-insensitive AChE in the cotton-melon aphid, Aphis gossypii Glover

We have identified two mutations in the ace1 gene of Aphis gossypii that are associated with insensitivity of acetylcholinesterase (AChE) to carbamate and organophosphate insecticides. The first of these, S431F (equivalent to F331 in Torpedo californica), is associated with insensitivity to the carbamate insecticide pirimicarb in a range of A. gossypii clones. The S431F mutation is also found in the peach-potato aphid, Myzus persicae (Sulzer), and a rapid RFLP diagnostic allows the identification of individuals of both aphid species with a resistant genotype. This diagnostic further revealed the presence of S431 in several other pirimicarb-susceptible aphid species. The serine at this position in the wild-type enzyme has only been reported for aphids and provides a molecular explanation of why pirimicarb has a specific aphicidal action. A less specific insensitivity to a wide range of carbamates and organophosphates is associated with a second mutation, A302S (A201 in T. californica).

Antixenosis to the peach/potato aphid, myzus persicae (SuIzer) in potato cultivars

Field studies were conducted to determine the antixenotic resistance against the peach-potato aphid, Myzus persicae (Sulzer) in different potato cultivars i.e. Cardinal, Ultimus and Desiree. These cultivars were studied in the paired tests as Cardinal vs. Desiree and Cardinal vs. Desiree for antixenosis (systemic insecticide-based test). In Desiree vs. Ultimus, no significant difference was found for the preference of M. persicae, while in case of Cardinal vs. Desiree, there was a significant preference for Desiree. Cardinal clearly showed antixenosis to M. persicae.

Genotype and temperature influence pea aphid resistance to a fungal entomopathogen

The influence of temperature on life history traits of four Acyrthosiphon pisum clones was investigated, together with their resistance to one genotype of the fungal entomopathogen Erynia neoaphidis . There was no difference among aphid clones in development rate, but they did differ in fecundity. Both development rate and fecundity were influenced by temperature, but all clones showed similar responses to the changes in temperature (i.e. the interaction term was nonsignificant). However, there were significant differences among clones in susceptibility to the pathogen, and this was influenced by temperature. Furthermore, the clones differed in how temperature influenced susceptibility, with susceptibility rankings changing with temperature. Two clones showed changes in susceptibility which mirrored changes in the in vitro vegetative growth rate of E. neoaphidis at different temperatures, whereas two other clones differed considerably from this expected response. Such interactions between genotype and temperature may help maintain heritable variation in aphid susceptibility to fungal pathogen attack and have implications for our understanding of disease dynamics in natural populations. This study also highlights the difficulties of drawing conclusions about the efficacy of a biological control agent when only a restricted range of pest genotypes or environmental conditions are considered.

Using a water-soluble melamine-formaldehyde resin to improve the hardness of Norway spruce wood

Samples of Norway spruce wood were impregnated with a water-soluble melamine formaldehyde resin by using short-term vacuum treatment and long-term immersion, respectively. By means of Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy and UV microspectrophotometry, it was shown that only diffusion during long-term immersion leads to sufficient penetration of melamine resin into the wood structure, the flow of liquids in Norway spruce wood during vacuum treatment being greatly hindered by aspirated pits. After an immersion in aqueous melamine resin solution for 3 days, the resin had penetrated to a depth > 4 mm, which, after polymerization of the resin, resulted in an improvement of hardness comparable to the hardwood beech. A finite element model describing the effect of increasing depth of modification on hardness demonstrated that under the test conditions chosen for this study, a minimum impregnation depth of 2 mm is necessary to achieve an optimum increase in hardness. (C) 2004 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

Influence of temperature on pea aphid Acyrthosiphon pisum (Hemiptera: Aphididae) resistance to natural enemy attack

The ability to resist or avoid natural enemy attack is a critically important insect life history trait, yet little is understood of how these traits may be affected by temperature. This study investigated how different genotypes of the pea aphid Acyrthosiphon pisum Harris, a pest of leguminous crops, varied in resistance to three different natural enemies (a fungal pathogen, two species of parasitoid wasp and a coccinellid beetle), and whether expression of resistance was influenced by temperature. Substantial clonal variation in resistance to the three natural enemies was found. Temperature influenced the number of aphids succumbing to the fungal pathogen Erynia neoaphidis Remaudiere & Hermebert, with resistance increasing at higher temperatures (18 vs. 28degreesC). A temperature difference of 5degreesC (18 vs. 23degreesC) did not affect the ability of A. pisum to resist attack by the parasitoids Aphidius ervi Haliday and A. eadyi Stary Gonzalez & Hall. Escape behaviour from foraging coccinellid beetles (Hippodamia convergens Guerin-Meneville) was not directly influenced by aphid clone or temperature (16 vs. 21degreesC). However, there were significant interactions between clone and temperature (while most clones did not respond to temperature, one was less likely to escape at 16degreesC), and between aphid clone and ladybird presence (some clones showed greater changes in escape behaviour in response to the presence of foraging coccinellids than others). Therefore, while larger temperature differences may alter interactions between Acyrthosiphon pisum and an entomopathogen, there is little evidence to suggest that smaller changes in temperature will alter pea aphid-natural enemy interactions.

Effect of soil waterlogging on below-ground biomass allometric relations in Norway spruce

An increasing importance is assigned to the estimation and verification of carbon stocks in forests. Forestry practice has several long-established and reliable methods for the assessment of aboveground biomass; however we still miss accurate predictors of belowground biomass. A major windthrow event exposing the coarse root systems of Norway spruce trees allowed us to assess the effects of contrasting soil stone and water content on belowground allocation. Increasing stone content decreases root/shoot ratio, while soil waterlogging leads to an increase in this ratio. We constructed allometric relationships for belowground biomass prediction and were able to show that only soil waterlogging significantly impacts model parameters. We showed that diameter at breast height is a reliable predictor of belowground biomass and, once site-specific parameters have been developed, it is possible to accurately estimate belowground biomass in Norway spruce.

Fine root condition relates to visible crown damage in Norway spruce on acidified soils

Allochthonous Norway spruce stands in the Kysucké Beskydy Mts. (north-western Slovakia) have been exposed to substantial acid deposition in the recent past and grow in acidified soil conditions with mean pH of about 4.0 in the topsoil. We selected 90 spruce trees representing 30 triples of different crown status: healthy, stressed and declining to assess the relationship between crown and fine root status. Sequential coring and in-growth bags were applied to each triplet to investigate fine root biomass and growth in the soil depths of 0-10 and 10-20 cm. Fine root quantity (biomass and necromass), turnover (production over standing stock), morphological features (specific root length, root tip density) and chemical properties (Ca:Al molar ratio) were compared among the abovementioned health status categories. Living fine root biomass decreased with increasing stress, while the ratio of living to dead biomass increased. Annual fine root production decreased and specific root length increased in stressed trees when compared to healthy or declining trees, a situation which may be related to the position of trees in the canopy (healthy and declining – dominant, stressed – co-dominant). The Ca:Al ratio decreased with increasing crown damage, indicating a decreased ability to filter out aluminium. In conclusion, fine root status appears to be linked to visible crown damage and can be used as a tree health indicator.

Belowground biomass functions and expansion factors in high elevation Norway spruce

Biomass allocation to above- and belowground compartments in trees is thought to be affected by growth conditions. To assess the strength of such influences, we sampled six Norway spruce forest stands growing at higher altitudes. Within these stands, we randomly selected a total of 77 Norway spruce trees and measured volume and biomass of stem, above- and belowground stump and all roots over 0.5 cm diameter. A comparison of our observations with models parameterised for lower altitudes shows that models developed for specific conditions may be applicable to other locations. Using our observations, we developed biomass functions (BF) and biomass conversion and expansion factors (BCEF) linking belowground biomass to stem parameters. While both BF and BCEF are accurate in belowground biomass predictions, using BCEF appears more promising as such factors can be readily used with existing forest inventory data to obtain estimates of belowground biomass stock. As an example, we show how BF and BCEF developed for individual trees can be used to estimate belowground biomass at the stand level. In combination with existing aboveground models, our observations can be used to quantify total standing biomass of high altitude Norway spruce stands.

Biomass functions and expansion factors in young Norway spruce (Picea abies [L.] Karst) trees

Roots, stems, branches and needles of 160 Norway spruce trees younger than 10 years were sampled in seven forest stands in central Slovakia in order to establish their biomassfunctions (BFs) and biomassexpansionfactors (BEFs). We tested three models for each biomass pool based on the stem base diameter, tree height and the two parameters combined. BEF values decreased for all spruce components with increasing height and diameter, which was most evident in very young trees under 1 m in height. In older trees, the values of BEFs did tend to stabilise at the height of 3–4 m. We subsequently used the BEFs to calculate dry biomass of the stands based on average stem base diameter and tree height. Total stand biomass grew with increasing age of the stands from about 1.0 Mg ha−1 at 1.5 years to 44.3 Mg ha−1 at 9.5 years. The proportion of stem and branch biomass was found to increase with age, while that of needles was fairly constant and the proportion of root biomass did decrease as the stands grew older.

Tritrophic effects of organic and conventional fertilisers on a cereal-aphid-parasitoid system

The impact of parasitoids on pests varies between conventional and low-intensity agricultural systems. Although the impacts on parasitoid natural enemies of many practices within these agricultural systems are well understood, the role of fertilisers has been less well studied. The effects of organic-based and conventional fertilisers on Hordeum vulgare L. (Poaceae), the aphid Metopolophium dirhodum Walker (Hemiptera: Aphididae), and its parasitoid Aphidius ervi Haliday (Hymenoptera: Braconidae) was investigated using cage release experiments and measures of aphid and parasitoid fitness were taken. Barley tiller number and aphid weight were increased by fertilisers, particularly under conventional treatments. Adult parasitoid size correlated positively with that of the host, M. dirhodum, whereas percentage parasitism was not affected by fertiliser treatment or host size. The results suggest that the increased parasitoid impact observed in some low-intensity or organic systems is not a direct result of fertiliser treatment. Our results indicate that fertiliser treatments that improve cereal-aphid fitness will improve parasitoid fitness as measured by parasitoid size but may not influence percentage parasitism.

Effects of organic and conventional fertiliser treatments on host selection by the aphid parasitoid Diaeretiella rapae

The type and quantity of fertilizer supplied to a crop will differ between organic and conventional farming practices. Altering the type of fertilizer a plant is provided with can influence a plant’s foliar nitrogen levels, as well as the composition and concentration of defence compounds, such as glucosinolates. Many natural enemies of insect herbivores can respond to headspace volatiles emitted by the herbivores’ host plant in response to herbivory. We propose that manipulating fertilizer type may also influence the headspace volatile profiles of plants, and as a result, the tritrophic interactions that occur between plants, their insect pests and those pests’ natural enemies. Here, we investigate a tritrophic system consisting of cabbage plants, Brassica oleracea, a parasitoid, Diaeretiella rapae, and one of its hosts, the specialist cabbage aphid Brevicoryne brassicae. Brassica oleracea plants were provided with either no additional fertilization or one of three types of fertilizer: Nitram (ammonium nitrate), John Innes base or organic chicken manure. We investigated whether these changes would alter the rate of parasitism of aphids on those plants and whether any differences in parasitism could be explained by differences in attractivity of the plants to D. rapae or attack rate of aphids by D. rapae. In free-choice experiments, there were significant differences in the percentage of B. brassicae parasitized by D. rapae between B. oleracea plants grown in different fertilizer treatments. In a series of dual-choice Y-tube olfactometry experiments, D. rapae females discriminated between B. brassicae-infested and undamaged plants, but parasitoids did not discriminate between similarly infested plants grown in different fertilizer treatments. Correspondingly, in attack rate experiments, there were no differences in the rate that D. rapae attacked B. brassicae on B. oleracea plants grown in different fertilizer treatments. These findings are of direct relevance to sustainable and conventional farming practices.

Moderate drought alters biomass and depth distribution of fine roots in Norway spruce

A rain shelter experiment was conducted in a 90-year-old Norway spruce stand, in the Kysucké Beskydy Mts (Slovakia). Three rain shelters were constructed in the stand to prevent the rainfall from reaching the soil and to reduce water availability in the rhizosphere. Fine root biomass and necromass were repeatedly measured throughout a growing season by soil coring. We established the quantities of fine root biomass (live) and necromass (dead) at soil depths of 0-5, 5-15, 15-25, and 25-35 cm. Significant differences in soil moisture contents between control and drought plots were found in the top 15 cm of soil after 20 weeks of rainfall manipulation (lasting from early June to late October). Our observations show that even relatively light drought decreased total fine root biomass from 272.0 to 242.8 g m-2 and increased the amount of necromass from 79.2 to 101.2 g m-2 in the top 35 cm of soil. Very fine roots, i.e. those with diameter up to 1 mm, were more affected than total fine roots defined as 0-2 mm. The effect of reduced water availability was depth-specific, as a result we observed a modification of vertical distribution of fine roots. More roots in drought treatment were produced in the wetter soil horizons at 25-35 cm depth than at the surface. We conclude that fine and very fine root systems of Norway spruce have the capacity to re-allocate resources to roots at different depths in response to environmental signals, resulting in changes in necromass to biomass ratio.

Replacing Norway spruce with European beech: a comparison of biomass and Net Primary Production patterns in young stands

An alteration of species composition in temperate forests – both managed and natural - is one of the expected effects of environmental change. Present forest tree species ranges will be altered by changing environmental conditions. By a combination of continuous and destructive sampling, we compared biomass stocks and annual NPP in naturally regenerated stands of Norway spruce and European beech. We purposely selected a site where future environmental conditions are predicted to favour beech over presently dominant spruce. We found no difference in overall productivity, but biomass allocation differed significantly between the two species. Beech allocated more assimilates to stem and roots than spruce. There was no significant difference between the species in NPP of the fast turnover biomass pool comprising foliage and fine roots. Maximum height growth occurred about a month earlier than in spruce, potentially changing the timing of carbon (C) flow into the soil pools. We show that the replacement of spruce by beech will result in changes in forest biomass allocation and in alterations of belowground C cycle. Such changes will affect forest ecosystem function by modifying the magnitude and timing of certain C fluxes, but also by potentially changing the species composition of forest biota dependent on them.

Contrasting effects of necrotrophic and biotrophic plant pathogens on the aphid Aphis fabae

Phytophagous insects have to contend with a wide variation in food quality brought about by a variety of factors intrinsic and extrinsic to the plant. One of the most important factors is infection by plant pathogenic fungi. Necrotrophic and biotrophic plant pathogenic fungi may have contrasting effects on insect herbivores due to their different infection mechanisms and induction of different resistance pathways, although this has been little studied and there has been no study of their combined effect. We studied the effect of the biotrophic rust fungus Uromyces viciae-fabae (Pers.) Schroet (Basidiomycota: Uredinales: Pucciniaceae) and the necrotrophic fungus Botrytis cinerea Pers. (Ascomycota: Helotiales: Sclerotiniaceae) singly and together on the performance of the aphid Aphis fabae Scop. (Hemiptera: Aphididae) on Vicia faba (L.) (Fabaceae). Alone, botrytis had an inhibitory effect on individual A. fabae development, survival and fecundity, while rust infection consistently enhanced individual aphids’ performance. These effects varied in linear relation to lesion or pustule density. However, whole-plant infection by either pathogen resulted in a smaller aphid population of smaller aphids than on uninfected plants, indicating a lowering of aphid carrying capacity with infection. When both fungi were applied simultaneously to a leaf they generally cancelled the effect of each other out, resulting in most performance parameters being similar to the controls, although fecundity was reduced. However, sequential plant infection (pathogens applied five days apart) led to a 70% decrease in fecundity and 50% reduction in intrinsic rate of increase. The application of rust before botrytis had a greater inhibitory effect on aphids than applying botrytis before rust. Rust infection increased leaf total nitrogen concentration by 30% while infection by botrytis with or without rust led to a 38% decrease. The aphids’ responses to the two plant pathogens individually is consistent with the alteration in plant nutrient content by infection and also the induction of different plant defence pathways and the possible cross-talk between them. This is the first demonstration of the complex effects of the dual infection of a plant by contrasting pathogens on insect herbivores. Key words: Vicia faba, Botrytis cinerea, Uromyces viciae-fabae, tripartite interactions, induced resistance