Intermittent release of transients in the slow solar wind: 1. Remote sensing observations

The Heliospheric Imager (HI) instruments on board the STEREO spacecraft are used to analyze the solar wind during August and September 2007. We show how HI can be used to image the streamer belt and, in particular, the variability of the slow solar wind which originates inside and in the vicinity of the streamer belt. Intermittent mass flows are observed in HI difference images, streaming out along the extension of helmet streamers. These flows can appear very differently in images: plasma distributed on twisted flux ropes, V‐shaped structures, or “blobs.” The variety of these transient features may highlight the richness of phenomena that could occur near helmet streamers: emergence of flux ropes, reconnection of magnetic field lines at the tip of helmet streamers, or disconnection of open magnetic field lines. The plasma released with these transient events forms part of the solar wind in the higher corona; HI observations show that these transients are frequently entrained by corotating interaction regions (CIRs), leading to the formation of larger, brighter plasma structures in HI images. This entrainment is used to estimate the trajectory of these plasma ejecta. In doing so, we demonstrate that successive transients can be entrained by the same CIR in the high corona if they emanate from the same corotating source. Some parts of the streamers are more effective sources of transients than others. Surprisingly, evidence is given for the outflow of a recurring twisted magnetic structure, suggesting that the emergence of flux ropes can be recurrent.

Effects of solar wind magnetosphere coupling recorded at different geomagnetic latitudes: Separation of directly-driven and storage/release systems

The effect on geomagnetic activity of solar wind speed, compared with that of the strength of the interplanetary magnetic field, differs with geomagnetic latitude. In this study we construct a new index based on monthly standard deviations in the H-component of the geomagnetic field for all geomagnetic latitudes. We demonstrate that for this index the response at auroral regions correlates best with interplanetary coupling functions which include the solar wind speed while mid- and low-latitude regions respond to variations in the interplanetary magnetic field strength. These results are used to isolate the responsible geomagnetic current systems.

Gene flow, risk assessment and the environmental release of transgenic plants

The release of genetically modified plants is governed by regulations that aim to provide an assessment of potential impact on the environment. One of the most important components of this risk assessment is an evaluation of the probability of gene flow. In this review, we provide an overview of the current literature on gene flow from transgenic plants, providing a framework of issues for those considering the release of a transgenic plant into the environment. For some plants gene flow from transgenic crops is well documented, and this information is discussed in detail in this review. Mechanisms of gene flow vary from plant species to plant species and range from the possibility of asexual propagation, short- or long-distance pollen dispersal mediated by insects or wind and seed dispersal. Volunteer populations of transgenic plants may occur where seed is inadvertently spread during harvest or commercial distribution. If there are wild populations related to the transgenic crop then hybridization and eventually introgression in the wild may occur, as it has for herbicide resistant transgenic oilseed rape (Brassica napus). Tools to measure the amount of gene flow, experimental data measuring the distance of pollen dispersal, and experiments measuring hybridization and seed survivability are discussed in this review. The various methods that have been proposed to prevent gene flow from genetically modified plants are also described. The current "transgenic traits'! in the major crops confer resistance to herbicides and certain insects. Such traits could confer a selective advantage (an increase in fitness) in wild plant populations in some circumstances, were gene flow to occur. However, there is ample evidence that gene flow from crops to related wild species occurred before the development of transgenic crops and this should be taken into account in the risk assessment process.

Fragrance release from the surface of branched poly(amide)s

Enzymes are powerful tools in organic synthesis that are able to catalyse a wide variety of selective chemical transformations under mild and environmentally friendly conditions. Enzymes such as the lipases have also found applications in the synthesis and degradation of polymeric materials. However, the use of these natural catalysts in the synthesis and the post-synthetic modification of dendrimers and hyperbranched molecules is an application of chemistry yet to be explored extensively. In this study the use of two hydrolytic enzymes, a lipase from Candida cylindracea and a cutinase from Fusarium solani pisii, were investigated in the selective cleavage of ester groups situated on the peripheral layer of two families of branched polyamides. These branched polyamides were conjugated to simple fragrances citronellol and L-menthol via ester linkages. Hydrolysis of the ester linkage between the fragrances and the branched polyamide support was carried out in aqueous buffered systems at slightly basic pH values under the optimum operative conditions for the enzymes used. These preliminary qualitative investigations revealed that partial cleavage of the ester functionalities from the branched polyamide support had occurred. However, the ability of the enzymes to interact with the substrates decreased considerably as the branching density, the rigidity of the structure and the bulkiness of the polyamide-fragrance conjugates increased.

Thermoselective phase property of silica tethered with fluorinated chains for controlled 'release' and 'capture' of catalytic fluorous tin species

The temperature dependent mixing of organic and fluorous phases is one of the key principals of fluorous biphasic systems (FBS). Given the high cost of the perfluorous solvents and their impacts to the environment, it is apparent that elimination of these solvents in bulk quantity in the FBS is advantageous. We report for the first time, the surface coverage of silica with a fluorous solvent like material that traps (at ambient temperatures) and releases (at elevated temperatures) a fluorous tin bromide in organic solvent. Here, we demonstrate the catalytic utilisation of this species for the hydrocyclisation of 6-bromo-1-hexene with NaBH4. (C) 2002 Elsevier Science B.V. All rights reserved.

G protein ss gamma subunits mediate presynaptic inhibition of transmitter release from rat superior cervical ganglion neurones in culture

The activation of presynaptic G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) is widely reported to inhibit transmitter release; however, the lack of accessibility of many presynaptic terminals has limited direct analysis of signalling mediators. We studied GPCR-mediated inhibition of fast cholinergic transmission between superior cervical ganglion neurones (SCGNs) in culture. The adrenoceptor agonist noradrenaline (NA) caused a dose-related reduction in evoked excitatory postsynaptic potentials (EPSPs). NA-induced EPSP decrease was accompanied by effects on the presynaptic action potential (AP), reducing AP duration and amplitude of the after-hyperpolarization (AHP), without affecting the pre- and postsynaptic membrane potential. All effects of NA were blocked by yohimbine and synaptic transmission was reduced by clonidine, consistent with an action at presynaptic alpha 2-adrenoceptors. NA-induced inhibition of transmission was sensitive to pre-incubation of SCGNs with pertussis toxin (PTX), implicating the involvement of G alpha(i)/(o)beta y subunits. Expression of G alpha transducin, an agent which sequesters G protein beta gamma (G beta y) subunits, in the presynaptic neurone caused a time-dependent attenuation of NA-induced inhibition. Injection of purified G beta gamma subunits into the presynaptic neurone inhibited transmission, and also reduced the AHP amplitude. Furthermore, NA-induced inhibition was occluded by pre-injection of G beta gamma subunits. The Ca2+ channel blocker Cd2+ mimicked NA effects on transmitter release. Cd2+, NA and G beta gamma subunits also inhibited somatic Ca2+ current. In contrast to effects on AP-evoked transmitter release, NA had no clear action on AP-independent EPSPs induced by hypertonic solutions. These results demonstrate that G beta gamma subunits functionally mediate inhibition of transmitter release by alpha 2-adrenoceptors and represent important regulators of synaptic transmission at mammalian presynaptic terminals.

The relationship between membrane damage, release of protein and loss of viability in Escherichia coli exposed to high hydrostatic pressure

The aim of this work was to examine a possible association between resistance of two Escherichia coli strains to high hydrostatic pressure and the susceptibility of their cell membranes to pressure-induced damage. Cells were exposed to pressures between 100 and 700 MPa at room temperature (~20C) in phosphate-buffered-saline. In the more pressure-sensitive strain E. coli 8164, loss of viability occurred at pressures between 100 MPa and 300 MPa and coincided with irreversible loss of membrane integrity as indicated by uptake of propidium iodide (PI) and leakage of protein of molecular mass between 9 and 78 kDa from the cells. Protein release increased to a maximum at 400 MPa then decreased, possibly due to intracellular aggregation at the higher pressures. In the pressure-resistant strain E. coli J1, PI was taken up during pressure treatment but not after decompression indicating that cells were able to reseal their membranes. Loss of viability in strain J1 coincided with the transient loss of membrane integrity between approximately 200 MPa and 600 MPa. In E. coli J1 leakage of protein occurred before loss of viability and the released protein was of low molecular mass, between 8 and 11 kDa and may have been of periplasmic origin. In these two strains differences in pressure resistance appeared to be related to differences in the ability of their membranes to withstand disruption by pressure. However it appears that transient loss of membrane integrity during pressure can lead to cell death irrespective of whether cells can reseal their membranes afterwards.

PEGylated amyloid peptide nanocontainer delivery and release system

A micellar nanocontainer delivery and release system is designed on the basis of a peptide-polymer conjugate. The hybrid molecules self-assemble into micelles comprising a modified amyloid peptide core surrounded by a PEG corona. The modified amyloid peptide previously studied in our group forms helical ribbons based on a beta-sheet motif and contains beta-amino acids that are excluded from the beta-sheet structure, thus being potentially useful as fibrillization inhibitors. In the model peptide-PEG hybrid system studied, enzymatic degradation using alpha-chymotrypsin leads to selective cleavage close to the PEG-peptide linkage, break up of the micelles, and release of peptides in unassociated form. The release of monomeric peptide is useful because aggregation of the released peptide into beta-sheet amyloid fibrils is not observed. This concept has considerable potential in the targeted delivery of peptides for therapeutic applications.

Constraint release in entangled binary blends of linear polymers: a molecular dynamics study

We present extensive molecular dynamics simulations of the dynamics of diluted long probe chains entangled with a matrix of shorter chains. The chain lengths of both components are above the entanglement strand length, and the ratio of their lengths is varied over a wide range to cover the crossover from the chain reptation regime to tube Rouse motion regime of the long probe chains. Reducing the matrix chain length results in a faster decay of the dynamic structure factor of the probe chains, in good agreement with recent neutron spin echo experiments. The diffusion of the long chains, measured by the mean square displacements of the monomers and the centers of mass of the chains, demonstrates a systematic speed-up relative to the pure reptation behavior expected for monodisperse melts of sufficiently long polymers. On the other hand, the diffusion of the matrix chains is only weakly perturbed by the diluted long probe chains. The simulation results are qualitatively consistent with the theoretical predictions based on constraint release Rouse model, but a detailed comparison reveals the existence of a broad distribution of the disentanglement rates, which is partly confirmed by an analysis of the packing and diffusion of the matrix chains in the tube region of the probe chains. A coarse-grained simulation model based on the tube Rouse motion model with incorporation of the probability distribution of the tube segment jump rates is developed and shows results qualitatively consistent with the fine scale molecular dynamics simulations. However, we observe a breakdown in the tube Rouse model when the short chain length is decreased to around N-S = 80, which is roughly 3.5 times the entanglement spacing N-e(P) = 23. The location of this transition may be sensitive to the chain bending potential used in our simulations.

Platelets release novel thiol isomerase enzymes which are recruited to the cell surface following activation

The thiol isomerase enzymes protein disulphide isomerase (PDI) and endoplasmic reticulum protein 5 (ERp5) are released by resting and activated platelets. These re-associate with the cell surface where they modulate a range of platelet responses including adhesion, secretion and aggregation. Recent studies suggest the existence of yet uncharacterised platelet thiol isomerase proteins. This study aimed to identify which other thiol isomerase enzymes are present in human platelets. Through the use of immunoblotting, flow cytometry, cell-surface biotinylation and gene array analysis, we report the presence of five additional thiol isomerases in human and mouse platelets and megakaryocytes, namely; ERp57, ERp72, ERp44, ERp29 and TMX3. ERp72, ERp57, ERp44 and ERp29 are released by platelets and relocate to the cell surface following platelet activation. The transmembrane thiol isomerase TMX3 was also detected on the platelet surface but does not increase following activation. Extracellular PDI is also implicated in the regulation of coagulation by the modulation of tissue factor activity. ERp57 was identified within platelet-derived microparticle fractions, suggesting that ERp57 may also be involved in the regulation of coagulation as well as platelet function. These data collectively implicate the expanding family of platelet-surface thiol isomerases in the regulation of haemostasis.

The effect of the year of wheat variety release on productivity and stability of performance on two organic and two non-organic farms

Nineteen wheat cultivars, released from 1934 to 2000, were grown at two organic and two non-organic sites in each of 3 years. Assessments included grain yield, grain protein concentration, protein yield, disease incidence and green leaf area. The superiority of each cultivar (the sum of the squares of the differences between its mean in each environment and the mean of the best cultivar there, divided by twice the number of environments; CS) was calculated for yield, grain protein concentration and protein yield, and ranked in each environment. The yield and grain protein concentration CS were more closely correlated with cultivar release date at the non-organic sites than at organic sites. This difference may be attributed to higher yield levels with larger differences among cultivars at the non-organic sites, rather than to improved stability (i.e. similar ranks) across sites. The significant difference in the correlation of protein yield CS and cultivar age between organic and non-organic sites would support evidence that the ability to take up mineral nitrogen (N) compared to soil N has been a component of the selection conditions of more modern cultivars (released after 1989). This is supported by assessment of green leaf area (GLA), where more modern cultivars in the non-organic systems had greater late-season GLA, a trend that was not identified in organic conditions. This effect could explain the poor correlation between age and protein yield CS in organic compared to non-organic conditions where modern cultivars are selected to benefit from later nitrogen (N) availability which includes the spring nitrogen applications tailored to coincide with peak crop demand. Under organic management, N release is largely based on the breakdown of fertility-building crops incorporated (ploughed-in) in the previous autumn. The release of nutrients from these residues is dependent on the soil conditions, which includes temperature and microbial populations, in addition to the potential leaching effect of high winter rainfall in the UK. In organic cereal crops, early resource capture is a major advantage for maximizing the utilization of nutrients from residue breakdown. It is concluded that selection of cultivars under conditions of high agrochemical inputs selects for cultivars that yield well under maximal conditions in terms of nutrient availability and pest, disease and weed control. The selection conditions for breeding have a tendency to select cultivars which perform relatively better in non-organic compared to organic systems.

Second meal effect: modified sham feeding does not provoke the release of stored triacylglycerol from a previous high-fat meal

The present study was carried out to determine whether cephalic stimulation, associated with eating a meal, was sufficient stimulus to provoke the release of stored triacylglycerol (TAG) from a previous high-fat meal. Ten subjects were studied on three separate occasions. Following a 12 h overnight fast, subjects were given a standard mixed test meal which contained 56 g fat. Blood samples were taken before the meal and for 5 h after the meal when the subjects were randomly allocated to receive either water (control) or were modified sham fed a low-fat (6 g fat) or moderate-fat (38 g fat) meal. Blood samples were collected for a further 3 h. Compared with the control, modified sham feeding a low- or moderate-fat meal did not provoke an early entry of TAG, analysed in either plasma or TAG-rich lipoprotein (TRL) fraction (density ,1´006 kg/l). The TRL-retinyl ester data showed similar findings. A cephalic phase secretion of pancreatic polypeptide, without a significant increase in cholecystokinin levels, was observed on modified sham feeding. Although these data indicate that modified sham feeding was carried out successfully, analysis of the fat content of the expectorant showed that our subjects may have accidentally ingested a small amount of fat (0´7 g for the low-fat meal and 2´4 g for the moderate-fat meal). Nevertheless, an early TAG peak following modified sham feeding was not demonstrated in the present study, suggesting that significant ingestion of food, and not just orosensory stimulation, is necessary to provoke the release of any TAG stored from a previous meal.

Variation in the sensitivity of DOC release between different organic soils following H2SO4 and sea-salt additions

Long-term monitoring data from eastern North America and Europe indicate a link between increased dissolved organic carbon (DOC) concentrations in surface waters over the last two decades and decreased atmospheric pollutant and marine sulphur (S) deposition. The hypothesis is that decreased acidity and ionic strength associated with declining S deposition has increased the solubility of DOC. However, the sign and magnitude of DOC trends have varied between sites, and in some cases at sites where S deposition has declined, no significant increase in DOC has been observed, creating uncertainty about the causal mechanisms driving the observed trends. In this paper, we demonstrate chemical regulation of DOC release from organic soils in batch experiments caused by changes in acidity and conductivity (measured as a proxy for ionic strength) associated with controlled SO42− additions. DOC release from the top 10 cm of the O-horizon of organo-mineral soils and peats decreased by 21–60% in response to additions of 0–437 µeq SO42− l−1 sulphuric acid (H2SO4) and neutral sea-salt solutions (containing Na+, Mg2+, Cl−, SO42−) over a 20-hour extraction period. A significant decrease in the proportion of the acid-sensitive coloured aromatic humic acids (measured by specific ultra-violet absorbance (SUVA) at 254 nm) was also found with increasing acidity (P < 0.05) in most, but not all, soils, confirming that DOC quality, as well as quantity, changed with SO42− additions. DOC release appeared to be more sensitive to increased acidity than to increased conductivity. By comparing the change in DOC release with bulk soil properties, we found that DOC release from the O-horizon of organo-mineral soils and semi-confined peats, which contained greater exchangeable aluminium (Al) and had lower base saturation (BS), were more sensitive to SO42− additions than DOC release from blanket peats with low concentrations of exchangeable Al and greater BS. Therefore, variation in soil type and acid/base status between sites may partly explain the difference in the magnitude of DOC changes seen at different sites where declines in S deposition have been similar.

Mechanisms of burst release from pH-responsive polymeric microparticles.

Microencapsulation of drugs into preformed polymers is commonly achieved through solvent evaporation techniques or spray drying. We compared these encapsulation methods in terms of controlled drug release properties of the prepared microparticles and investigated the underlying mechanisms responsible for the “burst release” effect. Using two different pH-responsive polymers with a dissolution threshold of pH 6 (Eudragit L100 and AQOAT AS-MG), hydrocortisone, a model hydrophobic drug, was incorporated into microparticles below and above its solubility within the polymer matrix. Although, spray drying is an attractive approach due to rapid particle production and relatively low solvent waste, the oil-in-oil microencapsulation method is superior in terms of controlled drug release properties from the microparticles. Slow solvent evaporation during the oil-in-oil emulsification process allows adequate time for drug and polymer redistribution in the microparticles and reduces uncontrolled drug burst release. Electron microscopy showed that this slower manufacturing procedure generated non-porous particles whereas thermal analysis and X-ray diffractometry showed that drug loading above the solubility limit of the drug in the polymer generated excess crystalline drug on the surface of the particles. Raman spectral mapping illustrated that drug was homogeneously distributed as a solid solution in the particles when loaded below saturation in the polymer with consequently minimal burst release.

Production of pH-responsive microparticles by spray drying: investigation of experimental parameter effects on morphological and release properties

During spray drying, emphasis is placed on process optimisation to generate favourable particle morphological and flow properties. The effect of the initial feed solution composition on the drug release from the prepared microparticles is rarely considered. We investigated the effects of solvent composition, feed solution concentration and drug-loading on sodium salicylate, hydrocortisone and triamcinolone release from spray dried Eudragit L100 microparticles. Eudragit L100 is a pH-responsive polymer whose dissolution threshold is pH 6 so dissolution testing of the prepared microparticles at pH 5 and 1.2 illustrated non-polymer controlled burst release. Increasing the water content of the initial ethanolic feed solution significantly reduced hydrocortisone burst release at pH 5, as did reducing the feed solution concentration. These findings caution that changes in feed solution concentration or solvent composition not only affect particles’ morphological characteristics but can also negatively alter their drug release properties. This work also illustrate that drug-free microparticles can have different morphological properties to drug-loaded microparticles. Therefore, process optimisation needs to be carried out using drug-loaded systems. Depending on the physicochemical properties of the encapsulated API, drug-loading can affect the polymer solubility in the initial feed solution with consequent impact on microparticles morphological and release properties.