Current intakes of EPA and DHA in European populations and the potential of animal-derived foods to increase them

The beneficial effects of long-chain (C chain >= 20) n-3 PUFA are well documented and, overall, increased intake reduces risk of CVD. Recent evidence also points to a role in reducing, age-related decline in cognitive function. The two key fatty acids are EPA (20:5) and DHA (22:6), with current UK recommendation for adults being 450 mg EPA + DHA/d. Whilst some EPA and DHA can be synthesised in vivo from alpha-linolenic acid, recent data indicate this source to be very limited, Suggesting that EPA and DHA should be classified as dietary essentials. In many parts of Europe the daily intake of EPA + DHA by adults and especially young adults (18-24 years) is < 100 mg/d, since many never eat oily fish. Poultry meat contributes small but worthwhile amounts of EPA+DHA. Studies to enrich the EPA+DHA content of animal-derived foods mainly use fish oil in the diet of the animal. Recent work has shown that such enrichment has the potential to provide to the UK adult diet a daily intake of EPA+DHA of about 230 mg, with poultry meat providing the largest amount (74 mg). There are. however. concerns that the Continued and possibly increased use of fish oils in animals diets is not Sustainable and alternative approaches are being examined, including the genetic modification of certain plants to allow them to synthesise EPA and DHA from shorter-chain precursors.

Current intakes of EPA and DHA in European populations and the potential of animal-derived foods to increase them

The beneficial effects of long-chain (C chain >= 20) n-3 PUFA are well documented and, overall, increased intake reduces risk of CVD. Recent evidence also points to a role in reducing, age-related decline in cognitive function. The two key fatty acids are EPA (20:5) and DHA (22:6), with current UK recommendation for adults being 450 mg EPA + DHA/d. Whilst some EPA and DHA can be synthesised in vivo from alpha-linolenic acid, recent data indicate this source to be very limited, Suggesting that EPA and DHA should be classified as dietary essentials. In many parts of Europe the daily intake of EPA + DHA by adults and especially young adults (18-24 years) is < 100 mg/d, since many never eat oily fish. Poultry meat contributes small but worthwhile amounts of EPA+DHA. Studies to enrich the EPA+DHA content of animal-derived foods mainly use fish oil in the diet of the animal. Recent work has shown that such enrichment has the potential to provide to the UK adult diet a daily intake of EPA+DHA of about 230 mg, with poultry meat providing the largest amount (74 mg). There are. however. concerns that the Continued and possibly increased use of fish oils in animals diets is not Sustainable and alternative approaches are being examined, including the genetic modification of certain plants to allow them to synthesise EPA and DHA from shorter-chain precursors.

Foods derived from animals: the impact of animal nutrition on their nutritive value and ability to sustain long-term health

Foods derived from domestic animals are a significant source of nutrients in the UK diet. However, certain aspects of some animal-derived foods, notably levels of saturated fatty acids, have given rise to concerns that these foods may contribute to the risk of cardiovascular disease, the metabolic syndrome and other conditions. However, the composition of the many animal-derived foods is not constant and can often be enhanced by manipulating the nutrition of the animal. This paper reviews these possibilities with particular attention to lipids, and draws attention to the fact that milk in particular, contains a number of compounds which may, for example, exert anti-carcinogenic effects. It is clear that the role of animal nutrition in creating foods closer to the optimum composition for long-term human health will not only be more relevant in the future, but will be vital in attempts to improve the health of the human population.

Synthesis of alpha-galactooligosaccharides with alpha-galactosidase from Lactobacillus reuteri of canine origin

Crude cell-free extracts from Lactobacillus reuteri grown on cellobiose, maltose, lactose and raffinose were assayed for glycosidic activities. When raffinose was used as the carbon source, alpha-galactosidase was produced, showing the highest yield at the beginning of the stationary growth phase. A 64 kDa enzyme was purified by ultra- and gel filtration, and characterized for its hydrolytic and synthetic activity. Highest hydrolytic activity was found at pH 5.0 at 50 degreesC (K-M 0.55 mM, V-max 0.80 mumol min(-1) mg(-1) of protein). The crude cell-free extract was further used in glycosyl transfer reactions to synthesize oligosaccharides from melibiose and raffinose. At a substrate concentration of 23% (w/v) oligosaccharide mixtures were formed with main products being a trisaccharide at 26% (w/w) yield from melibiose after 8 h and a tetrasaccharide at 18% (w/w) yield from raffinose after 7 h. Methylation analysis revealed the trisaccharide to be 6' alpha-galactosyl melibiose and the tetrasaccharide to be stachyose. In both cases synthesis ceased when hydrolysis of the substrate reached 50%.

A cost-effective high-throughput digital system for observation and acquisition of animal behavioral data

We have designed and implemented a low-cost digital system using closed-circuit television cameras coupled to a digital acquisition system for the recording of in vivo behavioral data in rodents and for allowing observation and recording of more than 10 animals simultaneously at a reduced cost, as compared with commercially available solutions. This system has been validated using two experimental rodent models: one involving chemically induced seizures and one assessing appetite and feeding. We present observational results showing comparable or improved levels of accuracy and observer consistency between this new system and traditional methods in these experimental models, discuss advantages of the presented system over conventional analog systems and commercially available digital systems, and propose possible extensions to the system and applications to non-rodent studies.

MARCKS functions as a novel growth/tumour suppressor in cells of melanocyte origin

Protein kinase C (PKC) plays a pivotal role in modulating the growth of melanocytic cells in culture. We have shown previously that a major physiological substrate of PKC, the 80 kDa myristoylated alanine-rich C-kinase substrate (MARCKS), can be phosphorylated in quiescent, non-tumorigenic melanocytes exposed transiently to a biologically active phorbol ester, but cannot be phosphorylated in phorbol ester-treated, syngeneic malignant melanoma cells. Despite its ubiquitous distribution, the function of MARCKS in cell growth and transformation remains to be demonstrated clearly. We report here that MARCKS mRNA and protein levels are down-regulated significantly in the spontaneously derived murine B16 melanoma cell line compared with syngeneic normal Mel-ab melanocytes. In contrast, the tumourigenic v-Ha-ras-transfonned melan-ocytic line, LTR Ras 2, showed a high basal level of MARCKS phosphorylation which was not enhanced by treatment of cells with phorbol ester. Furthermore, protein levels of MARCKS in LTR Ras 2 cells were similar to those expressed in Mel-ab melanocytes. However, in four out of six murine tumour cell lines investigated, levels of MARCKS protein were barely detectable. Transfection of B16 cells with a plasmid containing the MARCKS cDNA in the sense orientation produced two neomycin-resistant clones displaying reduced proliferative capacity and decreased anchorage-independent growth compared with control cells. In contrast, transfection with the antisense MARCKS construct produced many colonies which displayed enhanced growth and transforming potential compared with control cells. Thus, MARCKS appears to act as a novel growth suppressor in the spontaneous transformation of cells of melanocyte origin and may play a more general role in the tumour progression of other carcinomas.

The effects of landscape modifications on the long-term persistence of animal populations

Background: The effects of landscape modifications on the long-term persistence of wild animal populations is of crucial importance to wildlife managers and conservation biologists, but obtaining experimental evidence using real landscapes is usually impossible. To circumvent this problem we used individual-based models (IBMs) of interacting animals in experimental modifications of a real Danish landscape. The models incorporate as much as possible of the behaviour and ecology of four species with contrasting life-history characteristics: skylark (Alauda arvensis), vole (Microtus agrestis), a ground beetle (Bembidion lampros) and a linyphiid spider (Erigone atra). This allows us to quantify the population implications of experimental modifications of landscape configuration and composition. Methodology/Principal Findings: Starting with a real agricultural landscape, we progressively reduced landscape complexity by (i) homogenizing habitat patch shapes, (ii) randomizing the locations of the patches, and (iii) randomizing the size of the patches. The first two steps increased landscape fragmentation. We assessed the effects of these manipulations on the long-term persistence of animal populations by measuring equilibrium population sizes and time to recovery after disturbance. Patch rearrangement and the presence of corridors had a large effect on the population dynamics of species whose local success depends on the surrounding terrain. Landscape modifications that reduced population sizes increased recovery times in the short-dispersing species, making small populations vulnerable to increasing disturbance. The species that were most strongly affected by large disturbances fluctuated little in population sizes in years when no perturbations took place. Significance: Traditional approaches to the management and conservation of populations use either classical methods of population analysis, which fail to adequately account for the spatial configurations of landscapes, or landscape ecology, which accounts for landscape structure but has difficulty predicting the dynamics of populations living in them. Here we show how realistic and replicable individual-based models can bridge the gap between non-spatial population theory and non-dynamic landscape ecology. A major strength of the approach is its ability to identify population vulnerabilities not detected by standard population viability analyses.

A method for the economic valuation of animal welfare benefits using a single welfare score

Unless the benefits to society of measures to protect and improve the welfare of animals are made transparent by means of their valuation they are likely to go unrecognised and cannot easily be weighed against the costs of such measures as required, for example, by policy-makers. A simple single measure scoring system, based on the Welfare Quality® index, is used, together with a choice experiment economic valuation method, to estimate the value that people place on improvements to the welfare of different farm animal species measured on a continuous (0-100) scale. Results from using the method on a survey sample of some 300 people show that it is able to elicit apparently credible values. The survey found that 96% of respondents thought that we have a moral obligation to safeguard the welfare of animals and that over 72% were concerned about the way farm animals are treated. Estimated mean annual willingness to pay for meat from animals with improved welfare of just one point on the scale was £5.24 for beef cattle, £4.57 for pigs and £5.10 for meat chickens. Further development of the method is required to capture the total economic value of animal welfare benefits. Despite this, the method is considered a practical means for obtaining economic values that can be used in the cost-benefit appraisal of policy measures intended to improve the welfare of animals.

A high prevalence of antimicrobial resistant Escherichia coli isolated from pigs and a low prevalence of antimicrobial resistant E-coli from cattle and sheep in Great Britain at slaughter

The incidence of antimicrobial resistance and expressed and unexpressed resistance genes among commensal Escherichia coli isolated from healthy farm animals at slaughter in Great Britain was investigated. The prevalence of antimicrobial resistance among the isolates varied according to the animal species; of 836 isolates from cattle tested only 5.7% were resistant to one or more antimicrobials, while only 3.0% of 836 isolates from sheep were resistant to one or more agents. However, 92.1% of 2480 isolates from pigs were resistant to at least one antimicrobial. Among isolates from pigs, resistance to some antimicrobials such as tetracycline (78.7%), sulphonamide (66.9%) and streptomycin (37.5%) was found to be common, but relatively rare to other agents such as amikacin (0.1%), ceftazidime ( 0.1%) and coamoxiclav (0.2%). The isolates had a diverse range of resistance gene profiles, with tet(B), sul2 and strAB identified most frequently. Seven out of 615 isolates investigated carried unexpressed resistance genes. One trimethoprim-susceptible isolate carried a complete dfrA17 gene but lacked a promoter for it. However, in the remaining six streptomycin-susceptible isolates, one of which carried strAB while the others carried aadA, no mutations or deletions in gene or promoter sequences were identified to account for susceptibility. The data indicate that antimicrobial resistance in E. coli of animal origin is due to a broad range of acquired genes.

Influence of dietary protein intake and glycemic index on the association between TCF7L2 HapA and weight gain

BACKGROUND: Genetic polymorphisms of transcription factor 7-like 2 (TCF7L2) have been associated with type 2 diabetes and BMI. OBJECTIVE: The objective was to investigate whether TCF7L2 HapA is associated with weight development and whether such an association is modulated by protein intake or by the glycemic index (GI). DESIGN: The investigation was based on prospective data from 5 cohort studies nested within the European Prospective Investigation into Cancer and Nutrition. Weight change was followed up for a mean (±SD) of 6.8 ± 2.5 y. TCF7L2 rs7903146 and rs10885406 were successfully genotyped in 11,069 individuals and used to derive HapA. Multiple logistic and linear regression analysis was applied to test for the main effect of HapA and its interaction with dietary protein or GI. Analyses from the cohorts were combined by random-effects meta-analysis. RESULTS: HapA was associated neither with baseline BMI (0.03 ± 0.07 BMI units per allele; P = 0.6) nor with annual weight change (8.8 ± 11.7 g/y per allele; P = 0.5). However, a previously shown positive association between intake of protein, particularly of animal origin, and subsequent weight change in this population proved to be attenuated by TCF7L2 HapA (P-interaction = 0.01). We showed that weight gain becomes independent of protein intake with an increasing number of HapA alleles. Substitution of protein with either fat or carbohydrates showed the same effects. No interaction with GI was observed. CONCLUSION: TCF7L2 HapA attenuates the positive association between animal protein intake and long-term body weight change in middle-aged Europeans but does not interact with the GI of the diet.

Dietary fatty acids and human health

A considerable amount of evidence has accumulated to support the view that the very long chain omega 3 fatty acids (eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA)) have beneficial cardiovascular and anti-inflammatory properties and that levels of their consumption are insufficient in most Western diets. More recently, attention has been given to the possibility that the precursor omega-3 PUFA, alpha linolenic acid (ALNA), may share some of the beneficial actions of EPA/DHA on human health. Further research into the metabolism and physiological actions of ALNA, and comparisons with EPA/DHA, is needed before conclusions regarding the optimal amounts and types of omega-3 PUFA for human health can be defined. Conjugated linoleic acid (CLA), which arises as a metabolic by-product of rumen hydrogenation and which is found in foods of animal origin, has been proposed to possess potent health promoting properties, but much of this research has been conducted in experimental animals. There is an urgent need for complementary studies in human volunteers, to confirm the putative anti-carcinogenic, anti-atherogenic, anti-lipogenic and immuno-suppressive properties of CLA.

Consumption of welfare-friendly food products in Great Britain, Italy and Sweden, and how it may be influenced by consumer attitudes to, and behaviour towards, animal welfare attributes

The interest in animal welfare and welfare-friendly food products has been increasing in Europe over the last 10 years. The media, highlighting traditional farming methods and food scares such as those related to salmonella, bovine spongiform encephalopathy/variant Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease (BSE) and avian influenza, have brought the methods of animal farming to public attention. Concerns about farm animal welfare are reflected in the increase in the number of vegetarians and vegans and an increase in consumers wishing to purchase food which is more animal welfare-friendly. This paper considers consumers’ attitudes to animal welfare and to marketing practices, such as product labelling, welfare grading systems and food assurance marks using comparative data collected in a survey of around 1500 consumers in each of Great Britain, Italy and Sweden as part of the EU-funded Welfare Quality research project. The findings suggest a need for the provision of improved consumer information on the welfare provenance of food using appropriate product labelling and other methods.

Animal health challenges and veterinary aspects of organic livestock farming identified through a 3 year EU network project

From 2003-2006, an EU network project ‘Sustaining Animal Health and Food Safety in Organic Farming' (SAFO), was carried out with 26 partners from 20 EU-countries and 4 related partners from 4 candidate or new member states. The focus was the integration of animal health and welfare issues in organic farming with food safety aspects. Four very consistent conclusions became apparent: 1) The climatic, physical and socio-economic conditions vary considerably throughout Europe, leading to different livestock farming systems. This limits the possibility for technology transfer between regions, and creates several challenges for a harmonised regulation, 2) Implementing organic standards at farm level does not always ensure that animal health and welfare reach the high ideals of the organic principles, 3) To overcome these deficiencies, organic farmers and farmer organisations need to take ownership of organic values and, 4) In all participating countries, a strong need for training of farmers and in particular veterinarians in animal health promotion and organic principles was identified. The article presents a summary of papers presented at the five SAFO workshops.

Evolutionary genomics of the Fox genes: origin of gene families and the ancestry of gene clusters

Over the past decade genomic approaches have begun to revolutionise the study of animal diversity. In particular, genome sequencing programmes have spread beyond the traditional model species to encompass an increasing diversity of animals from many different phyla, as well as unicellular eukaryotes that are closely related to the animals. Whole genome sequences allow researchers to establish, with reasonable confidence, the full complement of any particular family of genes in a genome. Comparison of gene complements from appropriate genomes can reveal the evolutionary history of gene families, indicating when both gene diversification and gene loss have occurred. More than that, however, assembled genomes allow the genomic environment in which individual genes are found to be analysed and compared between species. This can reveal how gene diversification occurred. Here, we focus on the Fox genes, drawing from multiple animal genomes to develop an evolutionary framework explaining the timing and mechanism of origin of the diversity of animal Fox genes. Ancient linkages between genes are a prominent feature of the Fox genes, depicting a history of gene clusters, some of which may be relevant to understanding Fox gene function.

Organic pollutants in animal products

It is necessary to assess the contamination of animal products by pollutants in order to protect human health. This can be achieved by understanding the processes whereby contaminants are introduced into the food chain. Such contamination can arise from the atmospheric deposition on to crops and soil or via contaminated feed. These processes are described and quantified with particular reference to the deposition of organic pollutants onto pasture. The transfer of the contaminants from the fodder and feed to the animal is also described. Finally, these processes are put in context by the illustration of how they are used in regulatory exposure models.