The distribution of species diversity across a flora's component lineages: dating the Cape's 'relicts'

The Cape Floristic Region is exceptionally species-rich both for its area and latitude, and this diversity is highly unevenly distributed among genera. The modern flora is hypothesized to result largely from recent (post-Oligocene) speciation, and it has long been speculated that particular species-poor lineages pre-date this burst of speciation. Here, we employ molecular phylogenetic data in combination with fossil calibrations to estimate the minimum duration of Cape occupation by 14 unrelated putative relicts. Estimates vary widely between lineages (7-101 Myr ago), and when compared with the estimated timing of onset of the modern flora's radiation, it is clear that many, but possibly not all, of these lineages pre-date its establishment. Statistical comparisons of diversities with lineage age show that low species diversity of many of the putative relicts results from a lower rate of diversification than in dated Cape radiations. In other putative relicts, however, we cannot reject the possibility that they diversify at the same underlying rate as the radiations, but have been present in the Cape for insufficient time to accumulate higher diversity. Although the extremes in diversity of currently dated Cape lineages fall outside expectations under a underlying diversification rate, sampling of all Cape lineages would be required to reject this null hypothesis.

DNA interaction and phosphotransfer of the C-4-dicarboxylate-responsive DcuS-DcuR two-component regulatory system from Escherichia coli

The DcuS-DcuR system of Escherichia coli is a two-component sensor-regulator that controls gene expression in response to external C-4-dicarboxylates and citrate. The DcuS protein is particularly interesting since it contains two PAS domains, namely a periplasmic C-4-dicarboxylate-sensing PAS domain (PASp) and a cytosolic PAS domain (PASc) of uncertain function. For a study of the role of the PASc domain, three different fragments of DcuS were overproduced and examined: they were PASc-kinase, PASc, and kinase. The two kinase-domain-containing fragments were autophosphorylated by [gamma-P-32]ATP. The rate was not affected by fumarate or succinate, supporting the role of the PASp domain in C-4-dicarboxylate sensing. Both of the phosphorylated DcuS constructs were able to rapidly pass their phosphoryl groups to DcuR, and after phosphorylation, DcuR dephosphorylated rapidly. No prosthetic group or significant quantity of metal was found associated with either of the PASc-containing proteins. The DNA-binding specificity of DcuR was studied by use of the pure protein. It was found to be converted from a monomer to a dimer upon acetylphosphate treatment, and native polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis suggested that it can oligomerize. DcuR specifically bound to the promoters of the three known DcuSR-regulated genes (dctA, dcuB, and frdA), with apparent K(D)s of 6 to 32 muM for untreated DcuR and less than or equal to1 to 2 muM for the acetylphosphate-treated form. The binding sites were located by DNase I footprinting, allowing a putative DcuR-binding motif [tandemly repeated (T/A)(A/T)(T/C)(A/T)AA sequences] to be identified. The DcuR-binding sites of the dcuB, dctA, and frdA genes were located 27, 94, and 86 bp, respectively, upstream of the corresponding +1 sites, and a new promoter was identified for dcuB that responds to DcuR.

The component polypeptide chains of bovine insulin nucleate or inhibit aggregation of the parent protein in a conformation-dependent manner

Amyloid fibrils are typically rigid, unbrariched structures with diameters of similar to 10 nm and lengths up to several micrometres, and are associated with more than 20 diseases including Alzheimer's disease and type II diabetes. Insulin is a small, predominantly alpha-helical protein consisting of 51 residues in two disulfide-linked polypeptide chains that readily assembles into amyloid fibrils under conditions of low PH and elevated temperature. We demonstrate here that both the A-chain and the B-chain of insulin are capable of forming amyloid fibrils in isolation under similar conditions, with fibrillar morphologies that differ from those composed of intact insulin. Both the A-chain and B-chain fibrils were found to be able to cross-seed the fibrillization of the parent protein, although these reactions were substantially less efficient than self-seeding with fibrils composed of full-length insulin. In both cases, the cross-seeded fibrils were morphologically distinct from the seeding, material, but shared common characteristics with typical insulin fibrils, including a very similar helical repeat. The broader distribution of heights of the cross-seeded fibrils compared to typical insulin fibrils, however, indicates that their underling protofilament hierarchy may be subtly different. In addition, and remarkably in view of this seeding behavior, the soluble forms of the A-chain and B-chain peptides were found to be capable of inhibiting insulin fibril formation. Studies using mass spectrometry suggest that this behavior might be attributable to complex formation between insulin and the A-chain and B-chain peptides. The finding that the same chemical form of a polypeptide chain in different physical states can either stimulate or inhibit the conversion of a protein into amyloid fibrils sheds new light on the mechanisms underlying fibril formation, fibril strain propagation and amyloid disease initiation and progression. (c) 2006 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Self-assembly of two-component gels: stoichiometric control and component selection

Two-component systems capable of self-assembling into soft gel-phase materials are of considerable interest due to their tunability and versatility. This paper investigates two-component gels based on a combination of a L-lysine-based dendron and a rigid diamine spacer (1,4-diaminobenzene or 1,4-diaminocyclohexane). The networked gelator was investigated using thermal measurements, circular dichroism, NMR spectroscopy and small angle neutron scattering (SANS) giving insight into the macroscopic properties, nanostructure and molecular-scale organisation. Surprisingly, all of these techniques confirmed that irrespective of the molar ratio of the components employed, the "solid-like" gel network always consisted of a 1:1 mixture of dendron/diamine. Additionally, the gel network was able to tolerate a significant excess of diamine in the "liquid-like" phase before being disrupted. In the light of this observation, we investigated the ability of the gel network structure to evolve from mixtures of different aromatic diamines present in excess. We found that these two-component gels assembled in a component-selective manner, with the dendron preferentially recognising 1,4-diaminobenzene (>70%). when similar competitor diamines (1,2- and 1,3-diaminobenzene) are present. Furthermore, NMR relaxation measurements demonstrated that the gel based oil 1,4-diaminobenzene was better able to form a selective ternary complex with pyrene than the gel based oil 1,4-diaminocyclohexane, indicative of controlled and selective pi-pi interactions within a three-component assembly. As such, the results ill this paper demonstrate how component selection processes in two-component gel systems call control hierarchical self-assembly.

A direct comparison of one- and two-component dendritic self-assembled materials: elucidating molecular recognition pathways

This paper compares and contrasts, for the first time, one- and two-component gelation systems that are direct structural analogues and draws conclusions about the molecular recognition pathways that underpin fibrillar self-assembly. The new one-component systems comprise L-lysine-based dendritic headgroups covalently connected to an aliphatic diamine spacer chain via an amide bond, One-component gelators with different generations of headgroup (from first to third generation) and different length spacer chains are reported. The self-assembly of these dendrimers in toluene was elucidated using thermal measurements, circular dichroism (CD) and NMR spectroscopies, scanning electron microscopy (SEM), and small-angle X-ray scattering (SAXS). The observations are compared with previous results for the analogous two-component gelation system in which the dendritic headgroups are bound to the aliphatic spacer chain noncovalently via acid-amine interactions. The one-component system is inherently a more effective gelator, partly as a consequence of the additional covalent amide groups that provide a new hydrogen bonding molecular recognition pathway, whereas the two-component analogue relies solely on intermolecular hydrogen bond interactions between the chiral dendritic headgroups. Furthermore, because these amide groups are important in the assembly process for the one-component system, the chiral information preset in the dendritic headgroups is not always transcribed into the nanoscale assembly, whereas for the two-component system, fiber formation is always accompanied by chiral ordering because the molecular recognition pathway is completely dependent on hydrogen bond interactions between well-organized chiral dendritic headgroups.

On the maximal connected component of hypercube with faulty vertices

In evaluating an interconnection network, it is indispensable to estimate the size of the maximal connected components of the underlying graph when the network begins to lose processors. Hypercube is one of the most popular interconnection networks. This article addresses the maximal connected components of an n -dimensional cube with faulty processors. We first prove that an n -cube with a set F of at most 2n - 3 failing processors has a component of size greater than or equal to2(n) - \F\ - 1. We then prove that an n -cube with a set F of at most 3n - 6 missing processors has a component of size greater than or equal to2(n) - \F\ - 2.

On the maximal connected component of hypercube with faulty vertices (II)

evaluating the fault tolerance of an interconnection network, it is essential to estimate the size of a maximal connected component of the network at the presence of faulty processors. Hypercube is one of the most popular interconnection networks. In this paper, we prove that for ngreater than or equal to6, an n-dimensional cube with a set F of at most (4n-10) failing processors has a component of size greater than or equal to2"-\F-3. This result demonstrates the superiority of hypercube in terms of the fault tolerance.

On the maximal connected component of a hypercube with faulty vertices III

Hypercube is one of the most popular topologies for connecting processors in multicomputer systems. In this paper we address the maximum order of a connected component in a faulty cube. The results established include several known conclusions as special cases. We conclude that the hypercube structure is resilient as it includes a large connected component in the presence of large number of faulty vertices.

Largest connected component of a star graph with faulty vertices

In order to make a full evaluation of an interconnection network, it is essential to estimate the minimum size of a largest connected component of this network provided the faulty vertices in the network may break its connectedness. Star graphs are recognized as promising candidates for interconnection networks. This article addresses the size of a largest connected component of a faulty star graph. We prove that, in an n-star graph (n >= 3) with up to 2n-4 faulty vertices, all fault-free vertices but at most two form a connected component. Moreover, all fault-free vertices but exactly two form a connected component if and only if the set of all faulty vertices is equal to the neighbourhood of a pair of fault-free adjacent vertices. These results show that star graphs exhibit excellent fault-tolerant abilities in the sense that there exists a large functional network in a faulty star graph.

Component processes of early reading, spelling, and narrative writing skills in Turkish: a longitudinal study

The study examined: (a) the role of phonological, grammatical, and rapid automatized naming (RAN) skills in reading and spelling development; and (b) the component processes of early narrative writing skills. Fifty-seven Turkish-speaking children were followed from Grade 1 to Grade 2. RAN was the most powerful longitudinal predictor of reading speed and its effect was evident even when previous reading skills were taken into account. Broadly, the phonological and grammatical skills made reliable contributions to spelling performance but their effects were completely mediated by previous spelling skills. Different aspects of the narrative writing skills were related to different processing skills. While handwriting speed predicted writing fluency, spelling accuracy predicted spelling error rate. Vocabulary and working memory were the only reliable longitudinal predictors of the quality of composition content. The overall model, however, failed to explain any reliable variance in the structural quality of the compositions

Isolation and characterisation of EfeM, a periplasmic component of the putative EfeUOBM iron transporter of Pseudomonas syringae pv. syringae

The EfeM protein is a component of the putative EfeUOBM iron-transporter of Pseudomonas syringae pathovar syringae and is thought to act as a periplasmic, ferrous-iron binding protein. It contains a signal peptide of 34 amino acid residues and a C-terminal 'Peptidase_M75' domain of 251 residues. The C-terminal domain contains a highly conserved 'HXXE' motif thought to act as part of a divalent cation-binding site. In this work, the gene (efeM or 'Psyr_3370') encoding EfeM was cloned and over-expressed in Escherichia coli, and the mature protein was purified from the periplasm. Mass spectrometry confirmed the identity of the protein (M(W) 27,772Da). Circular dichroism spectroscopy of EfeM indicated a mainly alpha-helical structure, consistent with bioinformatic predictions. Purified EfeM was crystallised by hanging-drop vapor diffusion to give needle-shaped crystals that diffracted to a resolution of 1.6A. This is the first molecular study of a peptidase M75 domain with a presumed iron transport role.