Etablierung neuer Methoden zur in vitro Kultivierung der Baumart Fraxinus excelsior L. und Entwicklung von Verfahren zur Kryokonservierung von in vitro Sprossspitzen

Die hier vorliegende Arbeit wurde im Rahmen eines europäischen Projektes mit dem Titel „Improving Fraxinus (Ash) productivity for European needs by testing, selection, propagation and promotion of improved genetic resources“ an der Niedersächsischen Forstlichen Versuchsanstalt, Abteilung Waldgenressourcen erstellt. Im Rahmen des Projektes wurden 62 Plusbäume aus einem 15 Jahre alten europäischen Herkunfts-/ Nachkommenschaftsversuch in den Niedersächsischen Forstämtern Bovenden und Dannenberg nach den Kriterien Stammform und Wuchsleistung für die vegetative Vermehrung ausgewählt. Ziel dieser Arbeit war die Optimierung bestehender in vitro Protokolle sowie die Entwicklung eines bisher noch nicht existierenden Kryokonservierungsprotokolls für in vitro Sprossspitzen. Im ersten Teil dieser Arbeit wird die Entwicklung des in vitro Protokolls für Fraxinus excelsior dargestellt. Die Optimierung der Methoden zur Etablierung, Vermehrung und Bewurzelung erfolgte durch Versuchsreihen mit unterschiedlichen Klonen, so dass insgesamt 26 der selektierten Plusbäume erfolgreich in vitro etabliert werden konnten. Achselknospen frischer Triebe der Pfropflinge der Mutterbäume stellten die beste Explantatquelle dar. Die Explantate wurden mit 0,2 % Quecksilberchlorid (HgCl2) oberflächensterilisiert bevor sie auf hormonfreies Woody Plant Medium (WPM) transferiert wurden. Nach zwei Wochen erfolgte ein Transfer auf WPM mit 4 mg/l 6-Benzylaminopurine (BAP) und 0,15 mg/l Indole-3-butyric acid (IBA). Die besten Vermehrungsraten wurden auf WPM mit 4 mg/l BAP, 0,15 mg/l IBA und 0,01 mg/l TDZ und 0,7 % Agar in Honiggläsern mit einem Plastikdeckel erzielt. Als Bewurzelungsmedium wurde 0,5 konzentriertes Murashige und Skoog (MS) Medium mit 2 mg/l IBA, 0,25 mg/l BAP und 0,8 % Agar verwandt. Im zweiten Teil der Arbeit werden die Versuchsreihen zur Entwicklung des Kryokonservierungsprotokolls von in vitro Sprossspitzen dargestellt. Zur Entwicklung der Methode wurden die Vorbehandlungsbedingungen verbessert und zwei Techniken, die Alginat- / Dehydrati-onsmethode und die Vitrifikationsmethode mit Hilfe der sogenannten PVS2-Lösung (Plant Vitrification solution number 2) getestet. Die optimierte PVS2-Methode erwies sich als die für Esche besser geeignete Technik und ließ sich erfolgreich zur Kryokonservierung juveniler und adulter Kulturen anwenden. Die Regenerationsraten lagen zwischen 50 und 100 % für juvenile bzw. 50 und 80 % für adulte Kulturen.

Adaptability of three newly introduced apricot (Prunus armeniaca L.) cultivars to Egyptian conditions

An experiment was conducted in 2013 and 2014 with three newly introduced cultivars of apricot (Prunus armeniaca L.), namely “Antonio Errani”, “Tirynthos” and “Ninfa” to study their performance and adaptability under Egyptian conditions. Results indicated that calculating the chilling hours temperature at or below 15°C was more suitable than temperatures at or below 7.2°C and 10°C. The cultivar with a low chilling requirement started with the opening of vegetative and flower buds earlier when compared to other cultivars. Furthermore, the cultivar Ninfa required less heat units as compared to the other two cultivars. Thus, the accumulated growing degree-days (GDDs) from the time of the flower bud break l until fruit maturity was low in early matured Ninfa cultivar. However, Antonio Errani and Tirynthos cultivars were late in the date of fruit ripening. Meanwhile, there was no significant difference in the opening percentage of vegetative and flower buds, trunk circumference, fruit drop, fruit number and yield weight among cultivars during the two seasons. Conversely, the leaf drop of Antonio Errani cultivar was earlier while Ninfa cultivar started it’s leaf drop later in the two seasons. Tirynthos gave the highest fruit weight, fruit size and fruit surface lightness. Meanwhile, the Antonio Errani cultivar was the highest in fruit firmness and total soluble solids. The appearance and behavior of cultivars under the study varied from one season to another with shoot length, leaf area, percentage of fruit set and acidity. It can be recommended from the present study that, Antonio Errani, Tirynthos and Ninfa cultivars are well adapted under Egyptian conditions. Further, fruits from the cultivars mature early and late in the season and can fulfill the demands of the market.

DNA methylation in Dictyostelium discoideum

DNA methyltransferases of type Dnmt2 are a highly conserved protein family with enigmatic function. The aim of this work was to characterize DnmA, the Dnmt2 methyltransferase in Dictyostelium discoideum, and further to investigate its implication in DNA methylation and transcriptional gene silencing. The genome of the social amoeba Dictyostelium encodes DnmA as the sole DNA methyltransferase. The enzyme bears all ten characteristic DNA methyltransferase motifs in its catalytic domain. The DnmA mRNA was found by RT-PCR to be expressed during vegetative growth and down regulated during development. Investigations using fluorescence microscopy showed that both DnmA-myc and DnmA-GFP fusions predominantly localised to the nucleus. The function of DnmA remained initially unclear, but later experiment revealed that the enzyme is an active DNA methyltransferase responsible for all DNA (cytosine) methylation in Dictyostelium. Neither in gel retardation assays, nor by the yeast two hybrid system, clues on the functionality of DnmA could be obtained. However, immunological detection of the methylation mark with an α - 5mC antibody gave initial evidence that the DNA of Dictyostelium was methylated. Furthermore, addition of 5-aza-cytidine as demethylating agent to the Dictyostelium medium and subsequent in vitro incubation of the DNA isolated from these cells with recombinant DnmA showed that the enzyme binds slightly better to this target DNA. In order to investigate further the function of the protein, a gene knock-out for dnmA was generated. The gene was successfully disrupted by homologous recombination, the knock-out strain, however, did not show any obvious phenotype under normal laboratory conditions. To identify specific target sequences for DNA methylation, a microarray analysis was carried out. Setting a threshold of at least 1.5 fold for differences in the strength of gene expression, several such genes in the knock-out strain were chosen for further investigation. Among the up-regulated genes were the ESTs representing the gag and the RT genes respectively of the retrotransposon skipper. In addition Northern blot analysis confirmed the up-regulation of skipper in the DnmA knock-out strain. Bisufite treatment and sequencing of specific DNA stretches from skipper revealed that DnmA is responsible for methylation of mostly asymmetric cytosines. Together with skipper, DIRS-1 retrotransposon was found later also to be methylated but was not present on the microarray. Furthermore, skipper transcription was also up-regulated in strains that had genes disrupted encoding components of the RNA interference pathway. In contrast, DIRS 1 expression was not affected by a loss of DnmA but was strongly increased in the strain that had the RNA directed RNA polymerase gene rrpC disrupted. Strains generated by propagating the usual wild type Ax2 and the DnmA knock-out cells over 16 rounds in development were analyzed for transposon activity. Northern blot analysis revealed activation for skipper expression, but not for DIRS-1. A large number of siRNAs were found to be correspondent to the DIRS-1 sequence, suggesting concerted regulation of DIRS-1 expression by RNAi and DNA methylation. In contrast, no siRNAs corresponding to the standard skipper element were found. The data show that DNA methylation plays a crucial role in epigenetic gene regulation in Dictyostelium and that different, partially overlapping mechanisms control transposon silencing for skipper and DIRS-1. To elucidate the mechanism of targeting the protein to particular genes in the Dictyostelium genome, some more genes which were up-regulated in the DnmA knock-out strain were analyzed by bisulfite sequencing. The chosen genes are involved in the multidrug response in other species, but their function in Dictyostelium is uncertain. Bisulfite data showed that two of these genes were methylated at asymmetrical C-residues in the wild type, but not in DnmA knock-out cells. This suggested that DNA methylation in Dictyostelium is involved not only in transposon regulation but also in transcriptional silencing of specific genes.

Heterochromatin und epigenetische Kontrolle der Centromere in Dictyostelium discoideum

Heterochromatin Protein 1 (HP1) is an evolutionarily conserved protein required for formation of a higher-order chromatin structures and epigenetic gene silencing. The objective of the present work was to functionally characterise HP1-like proteins in Dictyostelium discoideum, and to investigate their function in heterochromatin formation and transcriptional gene silencing. The Dictyostelium genome encodes three HP1-like proteins (hcpA, hcpB, hcpC), from which only two, hcpA and hcpB, but not hcpC were found to be expressed during vegetative growth and under developmental conditions. Therefore, hcpC, albeit no obvious pseudogene, was excluded from this study. Both HcpA and HcpB show the characteristic conserved domain structure of HP1 proteins, consisting of an N-terminal chromo domain and a C-terminal chromo shadow domain, which are separated by a hinge. Both proteins show all biochemical activities characteristic for HP1 proteins, such as homo- and heterodimerisation in vitro and in vivo, and DNA binding activtity. HcpA furthermore seems to bind to K9-methylated histone H3 in vitro. The proteins thus appear to be structurally and functionally conserved in Dictyostelium. The proteins display largely identical subnuclear distribution in several minor foci and concentration in one major cluster at the nuclear periphery. The localisation of this cluster adjacent to the nucleus-associated centrosome and its mitotic behaviour strongly suggest that it represents centromeric heterochromatin. Furthermore, it is characterised by histone H3 lysine-9 dimethylation (H3K9me2), which is another hallmark of Dictyostelium heterochromatin. Therefore, one important aspect of the work was to characterise the so-far largely unknown structural organisation of centromeric heterochromatin. The Dictyostelium homologue of inner centromere protein INCENP (DdINCENP), co-localized with both HcpA and H3K9me2 during metaphase, providing further evidence that H3K9me2 and HcpA/B localisation represent centromeric heterochromatin. Chromatin immunoprecipitation (ChIP) showed that two types of high-copy number retrotransposons (DIRS-1 and skipper), which form large irregular arrays at the chromosome ends, which are thought to contain the Dictyostelium centromeres, are characterised by H3K9me2. Neither overexpression of full-length HcpA or HcpB, nor deletion of single Hcp isoforms resulted in changes in retrotransposon transcript levels. However, overexpression of a C-terminally truncated HcpA protein, assumed to display a dominant negative effect, lead to an increase in skipper retrotransposon transcript levels. Furthermore, overexpression of this protein lead to severe growth defects in axenic suspension culture and reduced cell viability. In order to elucidate the proteins functions in centromeric heterochromatin formation, gene knock-outs for both hcpA and hcpB were generated. Both genes could be successfully targeted and disrupted by homologous recombination. Surprisingly, the degree of functional redundancy of the two isoforms was, although not unexpected, very high. Both single knock-out mutants did not show any obvious phenotypes under standard laboratory conditions and only deletion of hcpA resulted in subtle growth phenotypes when grown at low temperature. All attempts to generate a double null mutant failed. However, both endogenous genes could be disrupted in cells in which a rescue construct that ectopically expressed one of the isoforms either with N-terminal 6xHis- or GFP-tag had been introduced. The data imply that the presence of at least one Hcp isoform is essential in Dictyostelium. The lethality of the hcpA/hcpB double mutant thus greatly hampered functional analysis of the two genes. However, the experiment provided genetic evidence that the GFP-HcpA fusion protein, because of its ability to compensate the loss of the endogenous HcpA protein, was a functional protein. The proteins displayed quantitative differences in dimerisation behaviour, which are conferred by the slightly different hinge and chromo shadow domains at the C-termini. Dimerisation preferences in increasing order were HcpA-HcpA << HcpA-HcpB << HcpB-HcpB. Overexpression of GFP-HcpA or a chimeric protein containing the HcpA C-terminus (GFP-HcpBNAC), but not overexpression of GFP-HcpB or GFP-HcpANBC, lead to increased frequencies of anaphase bridges in late mitotic cells, which are thought to be caused by telomere-telomere fusions. Chromatin targeting of the two proteins is achieved by at least two distinct mechanisms. The N-terminal chromo domain and hinge of the proteins are required for targeting to centromeric heterochromatin, while the C-terminal portion encoding the CSD is required for targeting to several other chromatin regions at the nuclear periphery that are characterised by H3K9me2. Targeting to centromeric heterochromatin likely involves direct binding to DNA. The Dictyostelium genome encodes for all subunits of the origin recognition complex (ORC), which is a possible upstream component of HP1 targeting to chromatin. Overexpression of GFP-tagged OrcB, the Dictyostelium Orc2 homologue, showed a distinct nuclear localisation that partially overlapped with the HcpA distribution. Furthermore, GFP-OrcB localized to the centrosome during the entire cell cycle, indicating an involvement in centrosome function. DnmA is the sole DNA methyltransferase in Dictyostelium required for all DNA(cytosine-)methylation. To test for its in vivo activity, two different cell lines were established that ectopically expressed DnmA-myc or DnmA-GFP. It was assumed that overexpression of these proteins might cause an increase in the 5-methyl-cytosine(5-mC)-levels in the genomic DNA due to genomic hypermethylation. Although DnmA-GFP showed preferential localisation in the nucleus, no changes in the 5-mC-levels in the genomic DNA could be detected by capillary electrophoresis.

Characterization of DnmA, the Dnmt2 homolog in Dictyostelium discoideum

Eukaryotic DNA m5C methyltransferases (MTases) play a major role in many epigenetic regulatory processes like genomic imprinting, X-chromosome inactivation, silencing of transposons and gene expression. Members of the two DNA m5C MTase families, Dnmt1 and Dnmt3, are relatively well studied and many details of their biological functions, biochemical properties as well as interaction partners are known. In contrast, the biological functions of the highly conserved Dnmt2 family, which appear to have non-canonical dual substrate specificity, remain enigmatic despite the efforts of many researchers. The genome of the social amoeba Dictyostelium encodes Dnmt2-homolog, the DnmA, as the only DNA m5C MTase which allowed us to study Dnmt2 function in this organism without interference by the other enzymes. The dnmA gene can be easily disrupted but the knock-out clones did not show obvious phenotypes under normal lab conditions, suggesting that the function of DnmA is not vital for the organism. It appears that the dnmA gene has a low expression profile during vegetative growth and is only 5-fold upregulated during development. Fluorescence microscopy indicated that DnmA-GFP fusions were distributed between both the nucleus and cytoplasm with some enrichment in nuclei. Interestingly, the experiments showed specific dynamics of DnmA-GFP distribution during the cell cycle. The proteins colocalized with DNA in the interphase and were mainly removed from nuclei during mitosis. DnmA functions as an active DNA m5C MTase in vivo and is responsible for weak but detectable DNA methylation of several regions in the Dictyostelium genome. Nevertheless, gel retardation assays showed only slightly higher affinity of the enzyme to dsDNA compared to ssDNA and no specificity towards various sequence contexts, although weak but detectable specificity towards AT-rich sequences was observed. This could be due to intrinsic curvature of such sequences. Furthermore, DnmA did not show denaturant-resistant covalent complexes with dsDNA in vitro, although it could form covalent adducts with ssDNA. Low binding and methyltransfer activity in vitro suggest the necessity of additional factor in DnmA function. Nevertheless, no candidates could be identified in affinity purification experiments with different tagged DnmA fusions. In this respect, it should be noted that tagged DnmA fusion preparations from Dictyostelium showed somewhat higher activity in both covalent adduct formation and methylation assays than DnmA expressed in E.coli. Thus, the presence of co-purified factors cannot be excluded. The low efficiency of complex formation by the recombinant enzyme and the failure to define interacting proteins that could be required for DNA methylation in vivo, brought up the assumption that post-translational modifications could influence target recognition and enzymatic activity. Indeed, sites of phosphorylation, methylation and acetylation were identified within the target recognition domain (TRD) of DnmA by mass spectrometry. For phosphorylation, the combination of MS data and bioinformatic analysis revealed that some of the sites could well be targets for specific kinases in vivo. Preliminary 3D modeling of DnmA protein based on homology with hDNMT2 allowed us to show that several identified phosphorylation sites located on the surface of the molecule, where they would be available for kinases. The presence of modifications almost solely within the TRD domain of DnmA could potentially modulate the mode of its interaction with the target nucleic acids. DnmA was able to form denaturant-resistant covalent intermediates with several Dictyostelium tRNAs, using as a target C38 in the anticodon loop. The formation of complexes not always correlated with the data from methylation assays, and seemed to be dependent on both sequence and structure of the tRNA substrate. The pattern, previously suggested by the Helm group for optimal methyltransferase activity of hDNMT2, appeared to contribute significantly in the formation of covalent adducts but was not the only feature of the substrate required for DnmA and hDNMT2 functions. Both enzymes required Mg2+ to form covalent complexes, which indicated that the specific structure of the target tRNA was indispensable. The dynamics of covalent adduct accumulation was different for DnmA and different tRNAs. Interestingly, the profiles of covalent adduct accumulation for different tRNAs were somewhat similar for DnmA and hDNMT2 enzymes. According to the proposed catalytic mechanism for DNA m5C MTases, the observed denaturant-resistant complexes corresponded to covalent enamine intermediates. The apparent discrepancies in the data from covalent complex formation and methylation assays may be interpreted by the possibility of alternative pathways of the catalytic mechanism, leading not to methylation but to exchange or demethylation reactions. The reversibility of enamine intermediate formation should also be considered. Curiously, native gel retardation assays showed no or little difference in binding affinities of DnmA to different RNA substrates and thus the absence of specificity in the initial enzyme binding. The meaning of the tRNA methylation as well as identification of novel RNA substrates in vivo should be the aim of further experiments.

Populationsgenetik und Phylogeographie des Archäophyten und Kulturreliktzeigers Vinca minor L. (Apocynaceae)

Das Kleine Immergrün (Vinca minor L.) aus der Familie der Apocynaceae ist in der Krautschicht sommergrüner Wälder Südeuropas heimisch, während es in weiten Teilen Mitteleuropas als wahrscheinlich von den Römern eingeführter, altetablierter Archäophyt gilt. Noch heute ist die Art als Kulturreliktzeiger häufig in der Umgebung ehemaliger römischer Tempel und mittelalterlicher Burgruinen zu finden. Zudem wird V. minor in zahlreichen Gartenformen kultiviert. In Teilen Nordamerikas wird der Chamaephyt hingegen als eingeführte, invasive Art eingestuft, die die einheimische Flora und Fauna bedroht. Da V. minor Stolonen bilden kann und in Mitteleuropa selten reife Samen beobachtet werden, wurde bislang vermutet, dass V. minor Bestände in Mitteleuropa sich rein asexuell erhalten. Diese Hypothese wurde aber bisher nie mit molekularen Methoden überprüft. Auch zur Populationsgenetik der Art ist bisher nichts bekannt. Aus diesen Gegebenheiten resultieren folgende Fragen: Wie hoch ist die genetische Diversität von V. minor im submediterranen Ursprungsgebiet im Vergleich zu Mitteleuropa und Nordamerika und wie ist sie in den Großregionen jeweils strukturiert? Korreliert die anthropogen bedingte Einführung mit einer genetischen Verarmung in Mitteleuropa? Gibt es in mitteleuropäischen und nordamerikanischen Populationen Hinweise auf sexuelle Reproduktion, oder erfolgt eine rein vegetative Vermehrung? Gibt es genetische Hinweise für Auswilderungen aus Gärten? Lassen sich die historischen Ausbreitungswege der Art von Süd- nach Mitteleuropa, innerhalb Mitteleuropas sowie nach Nordamerika rekonstruieren? Mikrosatellitenmarker stellen für populationsgenetische Analysen heute die weitaus gängigste Technik dar. Als codominante, locusspezifische Marker erlauben sie die präzise Erfassung populationsgenetischer Parameter zur Quantifizierung der genetischen Diversität und Struktur, die Abschätzung von Genfluss, und die Detektion von Klonen. Mikrosatelliten sind mit Hilfe neuer DNA-Sequenziertechniken (NGS) unproblematisch und kosteneffektiv isolierbar. Im Rahmen der hier vorliegenden Arbeit wurden daher zunächst nukleäre und plastidäre Mikrosatellitenmarker über NGS-454-Sequenzierung entwickelt. Etablierung von nukleären und plastidären Mikrosatellitenmarkern Zur Etablierung artspezifischer nukleärer Mikrosatellitenmarker wurden zwei Verfahren angewendet. Zum einen wurde in einer öffentlich zugänglichen, über 454-Sequenzierung der cDNA von V. minor gewonnene und im 'sequence read archive' von NCBI hinterlegte Datenbank (Akzessionsnummer SRX039641) nach Mikrosatelliten gesucht. Zum anderen wurde die 454-Technologie eingesetzt, um in Kooperation mit Dr. Bruno Huettel vom Max-Planck-Institut für Pflanzenzüchtung in Köln genomische Sequenzdaten anhand einer V. minor-Akzession zu generieren und aus diesen Mikrosatelliten zu etablieren. Eine Assemblierung der 723.230 cDNA-Sequenzen mit insgesamt 387 Mbp erzielte eine Reduzierung auf 267.199 Unigenes (267 Mbp), die der genomischen Sequenzen eine Reduzierung von 43.565 (18 Mbp) auf 24.886 Sequenzen (13,7 Mbp). Die assemblierten Datensätze enthielten 25.253 bzw. 1.371 Mikrosatellitenloci aus Mono- bis Hexa-Nukleotidmotiven. Die Effizienz der Assemblierung war somit v. a. bei den cDNA-Sequenzen gering. Da die Etablierung von Mikrosatellitenloci aber auch auf Basis redundanter Sequenzen möglich ist, sofern ein manueller Abgleich der selektierten Sequenzen erfolgt, wurde auf eine weitere Optimierung der Assemblierung verzichtet. Aus den so identifizierten Loci wurden 60 (cDNA) bzw. 35 (genomische DNA) Di-, Tri- und Tetranukleotidmotive selektiert, flankierende Primer synthetisiert und in umfangreichen Pilotstudien getestet. Jeweils neun der Loci erwiesen sich als robuste, polymorphe Marker. Die sieben vielversprechendsten Marker wurden schließlich für die populationsgenetische Untersuchung ausgewählt. Auch die Etablierung plastidärer Mikrosatellitenmarker erfolgte über zwei Ansätze. Zum einen wurde das Plastom von V. minor aus dem genomischen 454-Sequenzdatensatz rekonstruiert und auf das Vorhandensein von (A)n/(T)n-Wiederholungseinheiten hin untersucht. Für 14 der 17 dabei detektierten Loci konnten Primer entworfen werden. In einer Pilotstudie erwiesen sich vier der Loci als funktionelle, polymorphe Marker. Zusätzlich wurden die zehn universellen (ccmp) Primerpaare zur Amplifikation plastidärer Mikrosatellitenloci aus Weising & Gardner (1999) getestet, von denen zwei als funktionelle, polymorphe Marker für die Hauptstudie geeignet waren. Populationsgenetische und phylogeographische Analyse Ein Probenset aus insgesamt 967 Pflanzenproben aus 70 Populationen aus Mitteleuropa inkl. der Alpen, den Regionen südlich und westlich der Alpen sowie aus Kanada und 18 Cultivaren wurde mittels der sieben neu etablierten, artspezifischen nukleären Mikrosatellitenmarker populationsgenetisch untersucht. Dabei erwiesen sich 21 der 31 untersuchten Populationen südlich und westlich der Alpen als genetisch hoch divers, die übrigen 10 zeigten vor allem klonales Wachstum und wiesen jeweils ein bis drei Multilocus-Genotypen (MLGs) auf. In 30 der 36 mitteleuropäischen Vorkommen (inkl. der Alpen) sowie den kanadischen Beständen war jeweils nur ein einziger MLG präsent. Drei der Vorkommen zeigten mit einem Heterozygotendefizit einzelner Stichproben Hinweise auf Geitonogamie, an drei weiteren Vorkommen traten jeweils zwei sowohl hinsichtlich der Blütenfarbe und -architektur als auch des MLG unterschiedliche Linien auf. An einem dieser Vorkommen wurde ein Hybrid-Genotyp detektiert, bisher der einzige molekulare Hinweis auf sexuelle Reproduktion im engeren Sinn in Mitteleuropa. Die 967 Stichproben konnten insgesamt 310 individuellen Multilocus-Genotypen (MLGs) zugeordnet werden. Davon traten 233 MLGs nur in jeweils einer einzigen Probe auf, die 77 verbleibenden wurden in mehreren Akzessionen detektiert. Aus einer Simulation ging hervor, dass diese wiederholten MLGs auf rein asexuelle Reproduktion zurückzuführen sind. In Mitteleuropa waren lediglich 18 MLGs vertreten, von denen sieben an bis zu zehn, mehrere hundert Kilometer entfernten Fundorten auftraten. In Nordamerika gehören gar alle drei untersuchten Populationen dem gleichen Klon an. In Mitteleuropa traten in zwei Fällen somatische Mutationen zwischen zwei MLGs auf, sodass diese zu klonalen Linien (Multilocus-Linien; MLL) zusammengefasst werden konnten. Sieben der 18 Cultivare weisen einen zu diversen Freilandvorkommen identischen Genotypen auf. Die Ergebnisse reflektieren den durch die anthropogene Selektion bedingten genetischen Flaschenhalseffekt, in dessen Folge der Genpool von Vinca minor in Mitteleuropa gegenüber der südeuropäischen Heimat der Art stark reduziert wurde. Sexuelle Reproduktion in Mitteleuropa zwischen zwei genetisch unterschiedlichen Individuen ist nur an wenigen Standorten überhaupt möglich und da meist nur ein Klon am gleichen Fundort auftritt, sehr selten. Die Ausbreitung erfolgt zudem rein anthropogen und über erhebliche Strecken, wie die identischen MLGs an unterschiedlichen, weit auseinander liegenden Fundorten belegen. Südlich und westlich der Alpen hingegen ist sexuelle Reproduktion über Samen häufig. Aus den kalkulierten Neighbour-Joining Phenogrammen, Neighbour-Nets und der Bayes'schen Analyse ergibt sich prinzipiell eine Abtrennung der in Norditalien und Slowenien gelegenen Vorkommen von den übrigen Regionen, wohingegen mehrere mittelitalienische Populationen mit denen westlich der Alpen und den mitteleuropäischen Vorkommen in einer engeren genetischen Beziehung stehen. Da die mittelitalienischen Vorkommen jedoch Anzeichen anthropogenen Ursprungs aufweisen (Monoklonalität, Lage an Wegrändern oder Burgen), lassen sich diese Populationen nur bedingt als potentielle Ursprungspopulationen ableiten. Die genetisch diversen norditalienischen und slowenischen Populationen sind trotz der Fragmentierung der norditalienischen Waldvegetation insgesamt nur moderat voneinander differenziert (FST=0,14, GST=0,17, RST=0,19). Die AMOVA ergab, dass über 80 % der genetischen Variation auf Variation innerhalb der Populationen zurückzuführen ist. Dennoch ergab sich aus einem Mantel-Test eine zunehmende genetische Differenzierung mit zunehmender geographischer Distanz (r=0,59). Die phylogeographische Analyse wurde mit Hilfe von vier plastidären Mikrosatellitenmarkern aus der 454-Sequenzierung und zwei universellen plastidären ccmp-Mikrosatellitenloci durchgeführt. Untersucht wurden jeweils eine bis sechs Stichproben aus den o. g. 70 Populationen, die 18 Cultivare sowie zusätzliche Einzelproben aus mehreren Ländern, deren DNA aus Herbarbelegen isoliert wurde. Insgesamt wurden 297 Proben untersucht. Unter diesen wurden in der phylogeographischen Analyse sieben plastidäre Haplotypen detektiert. In der Region südlich der Alpen traten sechs Haplotypen auf (H1 bis H5, H7), in Mitteleuropa vier Haplotypen (H1 bis H3, H6), in Nordamerika, Großbritannien, Schweden und Nordamerika trat hingegen nur ein einziger Haplotyp H1 auf. Die beiden häufigsten Haplotypen nahmen im berechneten Haplotypen-Netzwerk periphere Positionen ein und waren durch sieben Mutationschritte voneinander getrennt. Südlich der Alpen ergab sich jedoch keine klare geographische Verteilung der Haplotypen. Auch die plastidären Daten indizieren somit eine geringere genetische Diversität in den Gebieten, wo V. minor eingeführt wurde. Der geographische Ursprung der mitteleuropäischen Vorkommen in Südeuropa konnte nicht abschließend geklärt werden, jedoch lässt das Vorkommen von zwei weit entfernten Haplotypen den Schluss zu, dass Vinca minor mindestens zweimal (und vermutlich mehrfach) unabhängig in Mitteleuropa eingeführt wurde.

Diversity, local uses and availability of medicinal plants and wild yams in the Mahafaly region of south-western Madagascar

Short summary: This study was undertaken to assess the diversity of plant resources utilized by the local population in south-western Madagascar, the social, ecological and biophysical conditions that drive their uses and availability, and possible alternative strategies for their sustainable use in the region. The study region, ‘Mahafaly region’, located in south-western Madagascar, is one of the country’s most economically, educationally and climatically disadvantaged regions. With an arid steppe climate, the agricultural production is limited by low water availability and a low level of soil nutrients and soil organic carbon. The region comprises the recently extended Tsimanampetsotsa National Park, with numerous sacred and communities forests, which are threatened by slash and burn agriculture and overexploitation of forests resources. The present study analyzed the availability of wild yams and medicinal plants, and their importance for the livelihood of the local population in this region. An ethnobotanical survey was conducted recording the diversity, local knowledge and use of wild yams and medicinal plants utilized by the local communities in five villages in the Mahafaly region. 250 households were randomly selected followed by semi-structured interviews on the socio-economic characteristics of the households. Data allowed us to characterize sociocultural and socioeconomic factors that determine the local use of wild yams and medicinal plants, and to identify their role in the livelihoods of local people. Species-environment relationships and the current spatial distribution of the wild yams were investigated and predicted using ordination methods and a niche based habitat modelling approach. Species response curves along edaphic gradients allowed us to understand the species requirements on habitat conditions. We thus investigated various alternative methods to enhance the wild yam regeneration for their local conservation and their sustainable use in the Mahafaly region. Altogether, six species of wild yams and a total of 214 medicinal plants species from 68 families and 163 genera were identified in the study region. Results of the cluster and discriminant analysis indicated a clear pattern on resource, resulted in two groups of household and characterized by differences in livestock numbers, off-farm activities, agricultural land and harvests. A generalized linear model highlighted that economic factors significantly affect the collection intensity of wild yams, while the use of medicinal plants depends to a higher degree on socio-cultural factors. The gradient analysis on the distribution of the wild yam species revealed a clear pattern for species habitats. Species models based on NPMR (Nonparametric Multiplicative Regression analysis) indicated the importance of vegetation structure, human interventions, and soil characteristics to determine wild yam species distribution. The prediction of the current availability of wild yam resources showed that abundant wild yam resources are scarce and face high harvest intensity. Experiments on yams cultivation revealed that germination of seeds was enhanced by using pre-germination treatments before planting, vegetative regeneration performed better with the upper part of the tubers (corms) rather than the sets of tubers. In-situ regeneration was possible for the upper parts of the wild tubers but the success depended significantly on the type of soil. The use of manure (10-20 t ha¹) increased the yield of the D. alata and D. alatipes by 40%. We thus suggest the promotion of other cultivated varieties of D. alata found regions neighbouring as the Mahafaly Plateau.

Development of mechanical methods for cell-tray propagation and field transplanting of dwarf napiergrass (Pennisetum purpureum Schumach.)

Since dwarf napiergrass (Pennisetum purpureum Schumach.) must be propagated vegetatively due to lack of viable seeds, root splitting and stem cuttings are generally used to obtain true-to-type plant populations. These ordinary methods are laborious and costly, and are the greatest barriers for expanding the cultivation area of this crop. The objectives of this research were to develop nursery production of dwarf napiergrass in cell trays and to compare the efficiency of mechanical versus manual methods for cell-tray propagation and field transplanting. After defoliation of herbage either by a sickle (manually) or hand-mowing machine, every potential aerial tiller bud was cut to a single one for transplanting into cell trays as stem cuttings and placed in a glasshouse over winter. The following June, nursery plants were trimmed to a 25–cm length and transplanted in an experimental field (sandy soil) with 20,000 plants ha^(−1) either by shovel (manually) or Welsh onion planter. Labour time was recorded for each process. The manual defoliation of plants required 44% more labour time for preparing the stem cuttings (0.73 person-min. stemcutting^(−1)) compared to using hand-mowing machinery (0.51 person-min. stem-cutting^(−1)). In contrast, labour time for transplanting required an extra 0.30 person-min. m^(−2) (14%) using the machinery compared to manual transplanting, possibly due to the limited plot size for machinery operation. The transplanting method had no significant effect on plant establishment or plant growth, except for herbage yield 110 days after planting. Defoliation of herbage by machinery, production using a cell-tray nursery and mechanical transplanting reduced the labour intensity of dwarf napiergrass propagation.