Master Plan for Renewable Energy based Electricity Generation in The Gambia

The principal objective of this paper is to develop a methodology for the formulation of a master plan for renewable energy based electricity generation in The Gambia, Africa. Such a master plan aims to develop and promote renewable sources of energy as an alternative to conventional forms of energy for generating electricity in the country. A tailor-made methodology for the preparation of a 20-year renewable energy master plan focussed on electricity generation is proposed in order to be followed and verified throughout the present dissertation, as it is applied for The Gambia. The main input data for the proposed master plan are (i) energy demand analysis and forecast over 20 years and (ii) resource assessment for different renewable energy alternatives including their related power supply options. The energy demand forecast is based on a mix between Top-Down and Bottom-Up methodologies. The results are important data for future requirements of (primary) energy sources. The electricity forecast is separated in projections at sent-out level and at end-user level. On the supply side, Solar, Wind and Biomass, as sources of energy, are investigated in terms of technical potential and economic benefits for The Gambia. Other criteria i.e. environmental and social are not considered in the evaluation. Diverse supply options are proposed and technically designed based on the assessed renewable energy potential. This process includes the evaluation of the different available conversion technologies and finalizes with the dimensioning of power supply solutions, taking into consideration technologies which are applicable and appropriate under the special conditions of The Gambia. The balance of these two input data (demand and supply) gives a quantitative indication of the substitution potential of renewable energy generation alternatives in primarily fossil-fuel-based electricity generation systems, as well as fuel savings due to the deployment of renewable resources. Afterwards, the identified renewable energy supply options are ranked according to the outcomes of an economic analysis. Based on this ranking, and other considerations, a 20-year investment plan, broken down into five-year investment periods, is prepared and consists of individual renewable energy projects for electricity generation. These projects included basically on-grid renewable energy applications. Finally, a priority project from the master plan portfolio is selected for further deeper analysis. Since solar PV is the most relevant proposed technology, a PV power plant integrated to the fossil-fuel powered main electrical system in The Gambia is considered as priority project. This project is analysed by economic competitiveness under the current conditions in addition to sensitivity analysis with regard to oil and new-technology market conditions in the future.

Core Labor Rights

The working paper’s main objective is to explore the extent to which non-compliance to international labor rights is caused by global competition. From the perspective of institutional economics, compliance with core labor rights is beneficial for sustainable development. Nonetheless, violations of these rights occur on a massive scale. The violators usually blame competitive pressures. A number of studies have come to the conclusion that non-compliance does not provide for a competitive edge, thereby denying any economic rationale for non-compliance. While we sympathize with this conclusion, we find that these studies suffer from faulty assumptions in the design of their regression analyses. The assumption of perfect markets devoid of power relations is particularly unrealistic. While workers' rights promise long-term benefits, they may incur short-term production cost increases. On the supply side, the production sites with the highest amount of labor rights violations are characterized by a near perfect competitive situation. The demand side, however, is dominated by an oligopoly of brand name companies and large retailers. Facing a large pool of suppliers, these companies enjoy more bargaining power. Developing countries, the hosts to most of these suppliers, are therefore limited in their ability to raise labor standards on their own. This competitive situation, however, is the very reason why labor rights have to be negotiated internationally. Our exploration starts with an outline of the institutionalist argument of the benefits of core labor rights. Second, we briefly examine some cross-country empirical studies on the impact of trade liberalization (as a proxy for competitive pressures). Third, we develop our own argument which differentiates the impact of trade liberalization along the axes of labor- and capital-intensive production as well as low and medium skill production. Finally, we present evidence from a study on the impact of trade liberalization in Indonesia on the garment industry as an example of a low skill, laborintensive industry on the one hand, and the automobile as an example for a medium skill, capital-intensive industry on the other hand. Because the garment industry’s workforce consists mainly of women, we also discuss the gender dimension of trade liberalization.

Studies on arbuscular mycorrhiza (AM) in the Alentejo (Portugal) using pea mutants resistant to AM fungi as a control tool for field conditions

The utilization and management of arbuscular mycorrhiza (AM) symbiosis may improve production and sustainability of the cropping system. For this purpose, native AM fungi (AMF) were sought and tested for their efficiency to increase plant growth by enhanced P uptake and by alleviation of drought stress. Pot experiments with safflower (Carthamus tinctorius) and pea (Pisum sativum) in five soils (mostly sandy loamy Luvisols) and field experiments with peas were carried out during three years at four different sites. Host plants were grown in heated soils inoculated with AMF or the respective heat sterilized inoculum. In the case of peas, mutants resistant to AMF colonization were used as non-mycorrhizal controls. The mycorrhizal impact on yields and its components, transpiration, and P and N uptake was studied in several experiments, partly under varying P and N levels and water supply. Screening of native AMF by most probable number bioassays was not very meaningful. Soil monoliths were placed in the open to simulate field conditions. Inoculation with a native AMF mix improved grain yield, shoot and leaf growth variables as compared to control. Exposed to drought, higher soil water depletion of mycorrhizal plants resulted in a haying-off effect. The growth response to this inoculum could not be significantly reproduced in a subsequent open air pot experiment at two levels of irrigation and P fertilization, however, safflower grew better at higher P and water supply by multiples. The water use efficiency concerning biomass was improved by the AMF inoculum in the two experiments. Transpiration rates were not significantly affected by AM but as a tendency were higher in non-mycorrhizal safflower. A fundamental methodological problem in mycorrhiza field research is providing an appropriate (negative) control for the experimental factor arbuscular mycorrhiza. Soil sterilization or fungicide treatment have undesirable side effects in field and greenhouse settings. Furthermore, artificial rooting, temperature and light conditions in pot experiments may interfere with the interpretation of mycorrhiza effects. Therefore, the myc- pea mutant P2 was tested as a non-mycorrhizal control in a bioassay to evaluate AMF under field conditions in comparison to the symbiotic isogenetic wild type of var. FRISSON as a new integrative approach. However, mutant P2 is also of nod- phenotype and therefore unable to fix N2. A 3-factorial experiment was carried out in a climate chamber at high NPK fertilization to examine the two isolines under non-symbiotic and symbiotic conditions. P2 achieved the same (or higher) biomass as wild type both under good and poor water supply. However, inoculation with the AMF Glomus manihot did not improve plant growth. Differences of grain and straw yields in field trials were large (up to 80 per cent) between those isogenetic pea lines mainly due to higher P uptake under P and water limited conditions. The lacking N2 fixation in mutants was compensated for by high mineral N supply as indicated by the high N status of the pea mutant plants. This finding was corroborated by the results of a major field experiment at three sites with two levels of N fertilization. The higher N rate did not affect grain or straw yields of the non-fixing mutants. Very efficient AMF were detected in a Ferric Luvisol on pasture land as revealed by yield levels of the evaluation crop and by functional vital staining of highly colonized roots. Generally, levels of grain yield were low, at between 40 and 980 kg ha-1. An additional pot trial was carried out to elucidate the strong mycorrhizal effect in the Ferric Luvisol. A triplication of the plant equivalent field P fertilization was necessary to compensate for the mycorrhizal benefit which was with five times higher grain yield very similar to that found in the field experiment. However, the yield differences between the two isolines were not always plausible as the evaluation variable because they were also found in (small) field test trials with apparently sufficient P and N supply and in a soil of almost no AMF potential. This similarly occurred for pea lines of var. SPARKLE and its non-fixing mycorrhizal (E135) and non-symbiotic (R25) isomutants, which were tested in order to exclude experimentally undesirable benefits by N2 fixation. In contrast to var. FRISSON, SPARKLE was not a suitable variety for Mediterranean field conditions. This raises suspicion putative genetic defects other than symbiotic ones may be effective under field conditions, which would conflict with the concept of an appropriate control. It was concluded that AMF resistant plants may help to overcome fundamental problems of present research on arbuscular mycorrhiza, but may create new ones.

Innovation and Globalization Policy in Small Transition Countries ; Case study: Macedonia and Slovenia

Diese Arbeit befasst sich mit der Innovations- und Globalisierungspolitik in kleinen Transformationsländern am Beispiel Mazedoniens; diese wurde mit der Lage in Slowenien verglichen, einem Land von ungefähr gleicher Größe und mit gemeinsamer Vergangenheit als Teilrepublik der Jugoslawischen Föderation, aber mit einem wesentlich höheren ökonomischen Entwicklungsstand. Innovation wird dabei verstanden als „Herstellung, Anpassung und Ausnutzung von Neuerungen“, und sie wird durch das Umfeld, in dem sie stattfindet, beeinflusst. Anpassung und Ausnutzung sind gerade für kleine Transformationsländer von erheblicher Bedeutung, da ihre Fähigkeit zu Herstellung von Neuerungen sehr begrenzt sind. Die Rolle der Innovationspolitik besteht hierbei darin, institutionelle und organisationelle Regulierungen einzuführen, die ein günstiges Umfeld sowohl für Innovationen als auch für die Entwicklung eines nationalen Innovationssystems schaffen. Die Rolle der Politik besteht also nicht in der Innovation als solcher, sondern in der Herstellung der notwendigen Bedingungen für die Industrie und die Forschungseinrichtungen dahingehend zu schaffen, dass sie ihr Wissen, ihre Fertigkeiten und ihre praktischen Erfahrungen für innovative Tätigkeiten einsetzen können. Auf der einen Seite gibt es Institutionen und Organisationen, ohne die die Unternehmen rückständig und wenig leistungsstark wären (etwa das Patentamt oder Institutionen höherer Bildung), und auf der anderen Seite gibt es Institutionen und Organisationen, welche die Unternehmen dabei unterstützen, dass sie ihre Tätigkeit weiter unterstützen (z.B. durch Technologietransfer-Zentren und Netzwerke). Die Leistungen dieser Institutionen und Organisationen sind von großer Bedeutung für die nationalen Innovationssysteme und sollten ihrerseits durch Innovationspolitik unterstützt werden; dies bedeutet jedoch nicht, dass diese Leistungen vom Staat bereitgestellt werden, vielmehr sollte die Wirtschaftspolitik Möglichkeiten für die öffentlich/private oder sogar rein private Bereitstellung solcher Leistungen in Erwägung ziehen; dies würde nicht nur die Kosten für den Staat senken, sondern auch die Effizienz bei der Erstellung dieser Leistungen steigern. Die Arbeit kommt zu dem Schluss, dass das größte Problem der Innovationspolitik in Mazedonien darin besteht, dass es sie gar nicht gibt, und zwar nicht als Folge einer bewussten Entscheidung darüber. Tatsächlich müssen Ressourcen und Zeit für die Schaffung eines nationalen Innovationssystems eingesetzt werden mit Hilfe einer Politik, die sich auf die wesentlichen Umrisse konzentriert, wobei die Nachfrage nach Technologie im Unternehmensbereich gesteigert wird und das Wissen und das Informationsangebot restrukturiert wird. Dieses System muss offen sein, unter beständigem Verbesserungsdruck stehen und fähig sein, sich an Veränderungen anzupassen. Damit eine solche Politik erfolgreich ist, muss es einen Konsens darüber zwischen allen beteiligten Akteuren geben und darüber hinaus auch eine Kohärenz zwischen den verschiedenen politischen Institutionen. Das ist deswegen wichtig, weil der Innovationsprozess komplex ist und verschiedene Politikbereiche berührt. Ziel sollte die Schaffung eines Systems sein, das einerseits auf Autonomie und Kooperation aufbaut, andererseits aber auch Wettbewerb zwischen den beteiligten Institutionen und Organisationen fördert. Eine wichtige Bedingung für ein positives Investitionsklima im Bereich der Innovation ist die Erreichung von makroökonomischer Stabilität. Die gegenwärtige Situation ist gekennzeichnet durch Instabilität des Rechtswesens, durch Korruption und Probleme des Vertragsschutzes, die sowohl ausländische als auch inländische Akteure davon abhält, sich in wirtschaftlichen Aktivitäten in Mazedonien zu engagieren. Bei der Suche nach einem Ausweg aus diesen Problemen ist es wichtig für Mazedonien, von anderen Ländern wie Slowenien zu lernen, die ähnliche Probleme haben, aber auch schon Erfahrungen in der Problemlösung. Man muss dabei beachten, dass der Entwicklungsstand, das wirtschaftliche und das politische Umfeld in beiden Vergleichsländern sich erheblich unterscheiden, so dass die Lektionen, die Mazedonien von Slowenien lernen könnte, nicht direkt übertragen und kopiert werden können, sondern entsprechend angepasst werden müssen. Die vorliegende Arbeit liefert Einsichten in die Probleme der Innovationspolitik in Transformationsländern und liefert daher sowohl einen Anreiz als auch eine Quelle von Informationen für künftige Analysen der wirtschaftlichen Bedingungen und vor allem Innovationspolitik in Transformationsländern.

Varying the dietary supply of C and N to manipulate the manure composition of water buffalo heifers in Oman

Optimizing the composition of manure has the potential to reduce nutrient losses to the environment and to increase crop yields. In this study the effect of dietary ratios of carbon (C) to nitrogen (N) and neutral detergent fibre (NDF) to soluble carbohydrates (SC) on faeces composition of water buffalo heifers was assessed. Two digestibility trials were conducted with 12 animals each, fed one control and four test diets composed to achieve (1) high C/N and high NDF/SC ratios (HH), (2) low C/N and low NDF/SC ratios (LL), (3) high C/N and low NDF/SC ratios (HL) and (4) low C/N and high NDF/SC (LH) ratios. Faecal C/N ratios were generally lower than dietary C/N ratios, but the reduction was especially large for high C/N ratio diets (HH=55 %, HL=51 %). Faecal N concentration was positively correlated (r^2 = 0.6; P < 0.001) with N intake, but the increase in faecal N was more pronounced for diets that supplied low amounts of N. Faecal NDF concentration was positively related to NDF intake (r^2 = 0.42; P < 0.001), as well as the faecal C/N ratio (r^2 = 0.3; P < 0.001). Results demonstrate that C/N ratio and NDF concentration of buffalo manure were affected by diet composition. Diets with high C/N ratio and low NDF/SC ratio are preferable with regard to manure quality, but may not satisfy the nutritional requirements of producing animals, since N concentration in these diets was low and fibre concentration simultaneously high.

World Hunger, Malnutrition and Brain Development of Children

Hunger is still a major problem faced by people in the world especially in some areas in developing countries, and this condition is a cause of undernutrition. Insufficient nutrition during the early stages of life may adversely influence brain development. It was observed from my own research conducted in Bogor, Indonesia, that children with severe acute malnutrition (SAM, body mass index or BMI for age z score < -3) (N=54) had significantly (p<0.05) lower memory ability score (46.22±1.38) compared to normal children (BMI for age z score -2 ≤ z ≤ 1) (N=91) (51.56±1.24). Further, children with Moderate Acute Malnutrition (MAM, BMI for age z score -3 ≤ z <-2) tended to (p<0.1) have lower memory ability (50.08±1.58) than the normal children. On the other hand, overnutrition among children also might impair the brain function. The study revealed that children who are overweight (BMI for age z score 1 < z ≤ 2) (N=8) significantly (p<0.05) had lower memory ability score (46.13±4.50) compared to the normal children. This study also revealed that obese children (BMI for age z score > 2) (N=6) tended to (p<0.1) have lower memory ability score (50.33±5.64) than the normal children. It is therefore very important to maintain children at a normal BMI, not being undernourished (SAM and MAM categories) on one side and not being overnourished (overweight and obesity categories) on the other side in order to optimise their brain development. This could be achieved through providing children with an adequate and balanced nutrient supply via food.