Changes in amino acid enantiomers and microbial performance in soils from a subtropical mountain oasis in Oman abandoned for different periods

An important feature of maintaining the agricultural stability in millennia-old mountain oases of northern Oman is the temporary abandonment of terraces. To analyse the effects of a fallow period on soil microbial performance, i.e. microbial activity and microbial biomass, samples of eight terrace soils abandoned for different periods were collected in situ, assigned to four fallow age classes and incubated for 30 days in the laboratory after rewetting. The younger fallow age classes of 1 and 5 years were based on the records of the farmers’ recollections, the two older fallow age classes of 10–20 and 25–60 years according to the increase in the D -to- L ratio of valine and leucine enantiomers. The increase in these two ratios was in agreement with that of the D -to- L ratio of lysine. The strongest relationship was observed between the increase in the D -to- L ratio of lysine and the decrease in soil microbial biomass C. However, the most stringent coherence between the increase in fallow age and soil properties was revealed by the decreases in cumulative respiration and net N mineralisation rates with decreasing availability of substrate to soil microorganisms. During the 30-day incubation following rewetting, relative changes in microbial activity (respiration and net N mineralisation) and microbial biomass (C and N)indices were similar in the eight terrace soils on a fallow age-class-specific level, indicating that the same basic processes occurred in all of the sandy terrace soils investigated.

Effects of manure quality and application forms on soil C and N turnover of a subtropical oasis soil under laboratory conditions

Our knowledge of the agricultural sustainability of the millennia-old mountain oases in northern Oman is restricted in particular with respect to C and N turnover. A laboratory study was conducted (1) to analyse the effects of rewetting and drying on soil microorganisms after adding different manures, (2) to investigate the effects of mulching or incorporating of these manures, and (3) to evaluate the relationships between C and N mineralisation rates and manure quality indices. During the first 9-day rewetting and drying cycle, i.e. the “mulch” period, the content of extractable organic C decreased by approximately 40% in all four treatments. During the second 9-day rewetting and drying cycle, i.e. the “incorporation” period, this fraction decreased insignificantly in almost all treatments. The control and mature manure treatments form the first pair with a low percentage of total organic C evolved as CO2 (0.3% in 18 days) and a considerable percentage of total N mineralised as NH4 and NO3 (1% in 18 days), the fresh and immature manure treatments form the second pair with a higher amount of total organic C evolved as CO2 (0.5% in 18 days) and no net N mineralisation. During the first 9-day rewetting and drying cycle, the contents of microbial biomass C and biomass N increased by approximately 150% in all four treatments. During the second 9-day rewetting and drying cycle, no further increase was observed in the control and immature manure treatments and a roughly 30% increase in the other two treatments.

Application of biogas slurries from energy crops to arable soils and their impact on carbon and nitrogen dynamics

The use of renewable primary products as co-substrate or single substrate for biogas production has increased consistently over the last few years. Maize silage is the preferential energy crop used for fermentation due to its high methane (CH4) yield per hectare. Equally, the by-product, namely biogas slurry (BS), is used with increasing frequency as organic fertilizer to return nutrients to the soil and to maintain or increase the organic matter stocks and soil fertility. Studies concerning the application of energy crop-derived BS on the carbon (C) and nitrogen (N) mineralization dynamics are scarce. Thus, this thesis focused on the following objectives: I) The determination of the effects caused by rainfall patterns on the C and N dynamics from two contrasting organic fertilizers, namely BS from maize silage and composted cattle manure (CM), by monitoring emissions of nitrous oxide (N2O), carbon dioxide (CO2) and CH4 as well as leaching losses of C and N. II) The investigation of the impact of differences in soil moisture content after the application of BS and temperature on gaseous emissions (CO2, N2O and CH4) and leaching of C and N compounds. III) A comparison of BS properties obtained from biogas plants with different substrate inputs and operating parameters and their effect on C and N dynamics after application to differently textured soils with varying application rates and water contents. For the objectives I) and II) two experiments (experiment I and II) using undisturbed soil cores of a Haplic Luvisol were carried out. Objective III) was studied on a third experiment (experiment III) with disturbed soil samples. During experiment I three rainfall patterns were implemented including constant irrigation, continuous irrigation with periodic heavy rainfall events, and partial drying with rewetting periods. Biogas slurry and CM were applied at a rate of 100 kg N ha-1. During experiment II constant irrigation and an irrigation pattern with partial drying with rewetting periods were carried out at 13.5°C and 23.5°C. The application of BS took place either directly before a rewetting period or one week after the rewetting period stopped. Experiment III included two soils of different texture which were mixed with ten BS’s originating from ten different biogas plants. Treatments included low, medium and high BS-N application rates and water contents ranging from 50% to 100% of water holding capacity (WHC). Experiment I and II showed that after the application of BS cumulative N2O emissions were 4 times (162 mg N2O-N m-2) higher compared to the application of CM caused by a higher content of mineral N (Nmin) in the form of ammonium (NH4+) in the BS. The cumulative emissions of CO2, however, were on the same level for both fertilizers indicating similar amounts of readily available C after composting and fermentation of organic material. Leaching losses occurred predominantly in the mineral form of nitrate (NO3-) and were higher in BS amended soils (9 mg NO3--N m-2) compared to CM amended soils (5 mg NO3--N m-2). The rainfall pattern in experiment I and II merely affected the temporal production of C and N emissions resulting in reduced CO2 and enhanced N2O emissions during stronger irrigation events, but showed no effect on the cumulative emissions. Overall, a significant increase of CH4 consumption under inconstant irrigation was found. The time of fertilization had no effect on the overall C and N dynamics. Increasing temperature from 13.5°C to 23.5°C enhanced the CO2 and N2O emissions by a factor of 1.7 and 3.7, respectively. Due to the increased microbial activity with increasing temperature soil respiration was enhanced. This led to decreasing oxygen (O2) contents which in turn promoted denitrification in soil due to the extension of anaerobic microsites. Leaching losses of NO3- were also significantly affected by increasing temperature whereas the consumption of CH4 was not affected. The third experiment showed that the input materials of biogas plants affected the properties of the resulting BS. In particular the contents of DM and NH4+ were determined by the amount of added plant biomass and excrement-based biomass, respectively. Correlations between BS properties and CO2 or N2O emissions were not detected. Solely the ammonia (NH3) emissions showed a positive correlation with NH4+ content in BS as well as a negative correlation with the total C (Ct) content. The BS-N application rates affected the relative CO2 emissions (% of C supplied with BS) when applied to silty soil as well as the relative N2O emissions (% of N supplied with BS) when applied to sandy soil. The impacts on the C and N dynamics induced by BS application were exceeded by the differences induced by soil texture. Presumably, due to the higher clay content in silty soils, organic matter was stabilized by organo-mineral interactions and NH4+ was adsorbed at the cation exchange sites. Different water contents induced highest CO2 emissions and therefore optimal conditions for microbial activity at 75% of WHC in both soils. Cumulative nitrification was also highest at 75% and 50% of WHC whereas the relative N2O emissions increased with water content and showed higher N2O losses in sandy soils. In summary it can be stated that the findings of the present thesis confirmed the high fertilizer value of BS’s, caused by high concentrations of NH4+ and labile organic compounds such as readily available carbon. These attributes of BS’s are to a great extent independent of the input materials of biogas plants. However, considerably gaseous and leaching losses of N may occur especially at high moisture contents. The emissions of N2O after field application corresponded with those of animal slurries.

Causes of legume rotation induced yield increases in cereals grown on West African soils

This study was conducted to investigate soil biological and chemical factors that give rise to cereal yield enhancing effects of legume rotations on sandy, nutrient poor West African soils. The aim was not only to gain more information on the role of legume residues and microorganisms in the soil nutrient cycle. But the study aimed at evaluating if differences in substrate qualities (e.g. root residues) cause changes in the microbial community structure due to specific and highly complex microbe-root-soil interactions. Site and system specific reactions of microorganisms towards rewetting, simulating the onset of rainy season, were observed. Higher respiration rates, higher amounts of microbial biomass carbon (Cmic) and nitrogen (Nmic) as well as higher ergosterol, muramic acid, glucosamine and adenylate concentrations were measured in CL soils of Koukombo and in both soils from Fada. The immediate increase in ATP concentrations after rewetting was likely caused by rehydration of microbial cells where N was not immobilized and, thus, available for plants facilitating their rapid development. Legume root residues led only to slightly better plant performances compared to the control, while the application of cereal roots reduced seedling growth. In contrast to sorghum seedlings, the microbial community did not react to the mineral treatment. Thus the energy supply in form of organic amendments increased microbial indices compared to mineral P application and the control. The results of basal respiration rates, Cmic and Corg levels indicate that the microbial community in the soil from Koukombo is less efficient in substrate use compared to microorganisms in the soil from Fada. However, the continuous carbon input by legume root residues might have contributed to these differences in soil fertility. With the 33P isotopic exchange method a low buffering capacity was detected in both soils irrespective of treatments. Calculated E values (E1min to E1min-1d and E1d-3m) indicated a slowly release of P due to root turnover while applied mineral P is taken up by plants or fixed to the soil. Due to the fact that sorghum growth reacted mainly to the application of mineral P and the microorganisms solely to the organic inputs, the combination of both amendments seems to be the best approach to a sustainable increase of crop production on many nutrient-poor, sandy West African soils. In a pot experiment, were CC and CL soils from Fada and Koukombo were adjusted to the same level of P and N concentrations, crop growth was significantly higher on CL soils, compared to the respective treatments on CC soils. Mycorrhizal infection of roots was increased and the number of nematodes, predominantly free living nematodes, was almost halfed on rotation soils. In conclusion, increased nutrient availability (especially P and N) through the introduction of legumes is not the only reason for the observed yield increasing effects. Soil biological factors seem to also play an important role. In a root chamber experiment the pH gradient along the root-soil-interface was measured at three times using an antimony microelectrode. For Fada soils, pH values were higher on CL than CC soils while the opposite was true for the Koukombo soils. Site-specific differences between Fada and Koukombo soils in N content and microbial community structures might have created varying crop performances leading to the contrasting pH findings. However, the mechanisms involved in this highly complex microbe-root-soil interaction remain unclear.