Soil-less systems vs. soil-based systems for cultivating edible plants on buildings in relation to the contribution towards sustainable cities

Food production and consumption for cities has become a global concern due to increasing numbers of people living in urban areas, threatening food security. There is the contention that people living in cities have become disconnected with food production, leading to reduced nutrition in diets and increased food waste. Integrating food production into cities (urban agriculture) can help alleviate some of these issues. Lack of space at ground level in high-density urban areas has accelerated the idea of using spare building surfaces for food production. There are various growing methods being used for food production on buildings, which can be split into two main types, soil-less systems and soil-based systems. This paper is a holistic assessment (underpinned by the triple bottom line of sustainable development) of these two types of systems for food production on buildings, looking at the benefits and limitation of each type in this context. The results illustrate that soil-less systems are more productive per square metre, which increases the amount of locally grown, fresh produce available in urban areas. The results also show that soil-based systems for cultivation on buildings are more environmentally and socially beneficial overall for urban areas than soil-less systems.

Cereal/legume rotation effects on rhizosphere bacterial community structure in West African soils

The increased use of cereal/legume crop rotation has been advocated as a strategy to increase cereal yields of subsistence farmers in West Africa, and is believed to promote changes in the rhizosphere that enhance early plant growth. In this study we investigated the microbial diversity of the rhizoplane from seedlings grown in two soils previously planted to cereal or legume from experimental plots in Gaya, Niger, and Kaboli, Togo. Soils from these legume rotation and continuous cereal plots were placed into containers and sown in a growth chamber with maize (Zea mays L.), millet (Pennisetum glaucum L.), sorghum (Sorghum bicolor L. Moench.), cowpea (Vigna unguiculata L.) or groundnut (Arachis hypogaea L.). At 7 and 14 days after sowing, 16S rDNA profiles of the eubacterial and ammoniaoxidizing communities from the rhizoplane and bulk soil were generated using denaturing gradient gel electrophoresis (DGGE). Community profiles were subjected to peak fitting analyses to quantify the DNA band position and intensities, after which these data were compared using correspondence and principal components analysis. The data showed that cropping system had a highly significant effect on community structure (p <0.005), irrespective of plant species or sampling time. Continuous cereal-soil grown plants had highly similar rhizoplane communities across crop species and sites, whereas communities from the rotation soil showed greater variability and clustered with respect to plant species. Analyses of the ammonia-oxidizing communities provided no evidence of any effects of plant species or management history on ammonia oxidizers in soil from Kaboli, but there were large shifts with respect to this group of bacteria in soils from Gaya. The results of these analyses show that crop rotation can cause significant shifts in rhizosphere bacterial communities.

Charakterisierung von Möhren und Weizen aus ökologischem und konventionellem Anbau anhand ihrer Carotinoid- und Polyphenolkonzentration

Kurzfassung: Der Markt für ökologische Lebensmittel wächst stark. Verbraucher kaufen Produkte aus ökologischem Landbau aus einer Vielzahl von Gründen. Ein Teil dieser Gründe lässt sich nicht auf die Produktqualität zurückführen, sondern beruht auf der Annahme, dass sich der Produktionsprozess des Ökologischen Landbaus hinsichtlich der Schonung von Umweltressourcen, der Nachhaltigkeit der Produktion und sozialen Komponenten vom konventionellen Anbau unterscheidet. Daneben spielt der Wunsch nach einer gesunden Ernährung eine Rolle. Ökologische Lebensmittel können als Vertrauensgüter verstanden werden. Lebensmittelskandale machten in den vergangenen Jahren auch vor ökologischen Lebens¬mitteln nicht Halt. Folgerichtig erschütterte dies das Vertrauen der Verbraucher in ökologische Produkte. Mit steigender Produktion könnte die Gefahr, das weitere solche Ereignisse auftreten, steigen. Daher besteht Bedarf für Methoden, die die ökologische Produktqualität im Sinne einer Authentizitätsprüfung prüfen. Eine solche Prüfung könnte sich auf die Analyse sekundärer Pflanzenstoffe stützen. Diese Gruppe von Pflanzeninhaltsstoffen spielt bei der Diskussion um die besondere Qualität ökologischer Pflanzenprodukte eine große Rolle. Postuliert wird, dass ökologisch angebaute Pflanzen mangels mineralischer Düngung und mangels Schädlingsbekämpfung mit synthetischen Pestiziden einem erhöhten Stress ausgesetzt sind. Dies soll sich in einem höheren Niveau der mit den Selbstverteidigungsmechanismen der Pflanze eng verbundenen sekundären Pflanzenstoffe ausdrücken. Wichtige Untergruppen der sekundären Pflanzenstoffe sind Carotinoide und Polyphenole. An Weizen (Triticum aestivum L. und Triticum durum L.) und Möhre (Daucus carota L.) als für den ökologischen Landbau wichtigen Produkten wurden Messungen der Carotinoid- und Polyphenolkonzentration mit dem Ziel durchgeführt, die potentielle Eignung dieser Pflanzenstoffe als Biomarker zur Authentizitätsprüfung ökologischer Produkte zu evaluieren. Dazu wurden Proben aus ökologischem und konventionellem Anbau (Paarvergleich) untersucht. Diese stammten aus Langzeit-Feldversuchen (Weizen aus dem DOK- und dem MASCOT-Versuch), Feldversuchen und von Betriebspaaren untersucht. Ein generell höheres Niveau sekundärer Pflanzenstoffe in Möhren bzw. Weizen aus ökologischem Anbau gegenüber Proben aus konventionellem Anbau wurde nicht gefunden. Die Carotinoide waren weder bei der Möhre noch beim Weizen zur Authentizitätsprüfung geeignet. Die Konzentration der Carotinoide wurde stark durch die nicht dem Anbau¬verfahren zuzuordnenden Faktoren Klima, Sorte und Standort beeinflusst. Die Luteinkonzentration war das einzige durch das Anbauverfahren systematisch beeinflusste Carotenoid bei Weizen und Möhre. Die Unterschiede der Luteinkonzentration waren aber im Paarvergleich von Proben (ökologischer versus konventioneller Anbau) nicht durchgängig signifikant. Die Eignung von Polyphenolen als potentielles Authentizitätskriterium wurde nur an Möhren geprüft. Im Paarvergleich unterschieden sich die Konzentrationen einzelner Polyphenole signifikant und konsistent über Probenjahre und Standorte, nicht jedoch über Sorten hinweg. Wie bei den Carotinoiden konnte auch hier ein starker Einfluss von Probenjahr, Standort und Sorte gezeigt werden. Trotz der Variation durch diese nicht dem Anbau zuzuordnenden Faktoren war eine korrekte Klassifizierung der Proben nach Anbauverfahren möglich. Dies wurde mittels Diskriminanzanalyse getestet. Die Polyphenole sind daher potentiell als Authentizitätskriterium geeignet.

The role of ligneous vegetation for livestock nutrition in the sub-Sahelian and Sudanian zones of West Africa: Potential effects of climate change

Climate change and variability in sub-Saharan West Africa is expected to have negative consequences for crop and livestock farming due to the strong dependence of these sectors on rainfall and natural resources, and the low adaptive capacity of crops farmers, agro-pastoralist and pastoralists in the region. The objective of this PhD research was to investigate the anticipated impacts of expected future climate change and variability on nutrition and grazing management of livestock in the prevailing extensive agro-pastoral and pastoral systems of the Sahelian and Sudanian zones of Burkina Faso. To achieve this, three studies were undertaken in selected village territories (100 km² each) in the southern Sahelian (Taffogo), northern Sudanian (Nobere, Safane) and southern Sudanian (Sokouraba) zone of the country during 2009 and 2010. The choice of two villages in the northern Sudanian zone was guided by the dichotomy between intense agricultural land use and high population density near Safane, and lower agricultural land use in the tampon zone between the village of Nobere and the National Park Kaboré Tambi of Pô. Using global positioning and geographical information systems tools, the spatio-temporal variation in the use of grazing areas by cattle, sheep and goats, and in their foraging behaviour in the four villages was assessed by monitoring three herds each per species during a one-year cycle (Chapter 2). Maximum itinerary lengths (km/d) were observed in the hot dry season (March-May); they were longer for sheep (18.8) and cattle (17.4) than for goats (10.5, p<0.05). Daily total grazing time spent on pasture ranged from 6 - 11 h with cattle staying longer on pasture than small ruminants (p<0.05). Feeding time accounted for 52% - 72% of daily time on pasture, irrespective of species. Herds spent longer time on pasture and walked farther distances in the southern Sahelian than the two Sudanian zones (p<0.01), while daily feeding time was longer in the southern Sudanian than in the other two zones (p>0.05). Proportional time spent resting decreased from the rainy (June - October) to the cool (November - February) and hot dry season (p<0.05), while in parallel the proportion of walking time increased. Feeding time of all species was to a significantly high proportion spent on wooded land (tree crown cover 5-10%, or shrub cover >10%) in the southern Sahelian zone, and on forest land (tree crown cover >10%) in the two Sudanian zones, irrespective of season. It is concluded that with the expansion of cropland in the whole region, remaining islands of wooded land, including also fields fallowed for three or more years with their considerable shrub cover, are particularly valuable pasturing areas for ruminant stock. Measures must be taken that counteract the shrinking of wooded land and forests across the whole region, including also active protection and (re)establishment of drought-tolerant fodder trees. Observation of the selection behaviour of the above herds of cattle and small ruminant as far as browse species were concerned, and interviews with 75 of Fulani livestock keepers on use of browse as feed by their ruminant stock and as remedies for animal disease treatment was undertaken (Chapter 3) in order to evaluate the consequence of climate change for the contribution of browse to livestock nutrition and animal health in the extensive grazing-based livestock systems. The results indicated that grazing cattle and small ruminants do make considerable use of browse species on pasture across the studied agro-ecological zones. Goats spent more time (p<0.01) feeding on browse species than sheep and cattle, which spent a low to moderate proportion of their feeding time on browsing in any of the study sites. As far as the agro-ecological zones were concerned, the contribution of browse species to livestock nutrition was more important in the southern Sahelian and northern Sudanian zone than the southern Sudanian zone, and this contribution is higher during the cold and hot dry season than during the rainy season. A total of 75 browse species were selected on pasture year around, whereby cattle strongly preferred Afzelia africana, Pterocarpus erinaceus and Piliostigma sp., while sheep and goats primarily fed on Balanites aegyptiaca, Ziziphus mauritiana and Acacia sp. Crude protein concentration (in DM) of pods or fruits of the most important browse species selected by goats, sheep and cattle ranged from 7% to 13% for pods, and from 10% to 18% for foliage. The concentration of digestible organic matter of preferred browse species mostly ranged from 40% to 60%, and the concentrations of total phenols, condensed tannins and acid detergent lignin were low. Linear regression analyses showed that browse preference on pasture is strongly related to its contents (% of DM) of CP, ADF, NDF and OM digestibility. Interviewed livestock keepers reported that browse species are increasingly use by their grazing animals, while for animal health care use of tree- and shrub-based remedies decreased over the last two decades. It is concluded that due to climate change with expected negative impact on the productivity of the herbaceous layer of communal pastures browse fodder will gain in importance for animal nutrition. Therefore re-establishment and dissemination of locally adapted browse species preferred by ruminants is needed to increase the nutritional situation of ruminant stock in the region and contribute to species diversity and soil fertility restoration in degraded pasture areas. In Chapter 4 a combination of household surveys and participatory research approaches was used in the four villages, and additionally in the village of Zogoré (southern Sahelian zone) and of Karangasso Vigué (northern Sudanian zone) to investigate pastoralists’ (n= 76) and agro-pastoralists’ (n= 83) perception of climate change, and their adaptation strategies in crop and livestock production at farm level. Across the three agro-ecological zones, the majority of the interviewees perceived an increase in maximum day temperatures and decrease of total annual rainfall over the last two decades. Perceptions of change in climate patterns were in line with meteorological data for increased temperatures while for total rainfall farmers’ views contrasted the rainfall records which showed a slight increase of precipitation. According to all interviewees climate change and variability have negative impacts on their crop and animal husbandry, and most of them already adopted some coping and adaptation strategies at farm level to secure their livelihoods and reduce negative impacts on their farming system. Although these strategies are valuable and can help crop and livestock farmers to cope with the recurrent droughts and climate variability, they are not effective against expected extreme climate events. Governmental and non-governmental organisations should develop effective policies and strategies at local, regional and national level to support farmers in their endeavours to cope with climate change phenomena; measures should be site-specific and take into account farmers’ experiences and strategies already in place.

Economics of Hybrid Photovoltaic Power Plants

The global power supply stability is faced to several severe and fundamental threats, in particular steadily increasing power demand, diminishing and degrading fossil and nuclear energy resources, very harmful greenhouse gas emissions, significant energy injustice and a structurally misbalanced ecological footprint. Photovoltaic (PV) power systems are analysed in various aspects focusing on economic and technical considerations of supplemental and substitutional power supply to the constraint conventional power system. To infer the most relevant system approach for PV power plants several solar resources available for PV systems are compared. By combining the different solar resources and respective economics, two major PV systems are identified to be very competitive in almost all regions in the world. The experience curve concept is used as a key technique for the development of scenario assumptions on economic projections for the decade of the 2010s. Main drivers for cost reductions in PV systems are learning and production growth rate, thus several relevant aspects are discussed such as research and development investments, technical PV market potential, different PV technologies and the energetic sustainability of PV. Three major market segments for PV systems are identified: off-grid PV solutions, decentralised small scale on-grid PV systems (several kWp) and large scale PV power plants (tens of MWp). Mainly by application of ‘grid-parity’ and ‘fuel-parity’ concepts per country, local market and conventional power plant basis, the global economic market potential for all major PV system segments is derived. PV power plant hybridization potential of all relevant power technologies and the global power plant structure are analyzed regarding technical, economical and geographical feasibility. Key success criteria for hybrid PV power plants are discussed and comprehensively analysed for all adequate power plant technologies, i.e. oil, gas and coal fired power plants, wind power, solar thermal power (STEG) and hydro power plants. For the 2010s, detailed global demand curves are derived for hybrid PV-Fossil power plants on a per power plant, per country and per fuel type basis. The fundamental technical and economic potentials for hybrid PV-STEG, hybrid PV-Wind and hybrid PV-Hydro power plants are considered. The global resource availability for PV and wind power plants is excellent, thus knowing the competitive or complementary characteristic of hybrid PV-Wind power plants on a local basis is identified as being of utmost relevance. The complementarity of hybrid PV-Wind power plants is confirmed. As a result of that almost no reduction of the global economic PV market potential need to be expected and more complex power system designs on basis of hybrid PV-Wind power plants are feasible. The final target of implementing renewable power technologies into the global power system is a nearly 100% renewable power supply. Besides balancing facilities, storage options are needed, in particular for seasonal power storage. Renewable power methane (RPM) offers respective options. A comprehensive global and local analysis is performed for analysing a hybrid PV-Wind-RPM combined cycle gas turbine power system. Such a power system design might be competitive and could offer solutions for nearly all current energy system constraints including the heating and transportation sector and even the chemical industry. Summing up, hybrid PV power plants become very attractive and PV power systems will very likely evolve together with wind power to the major and final source of energy for mankind.

Nutrition in Kindergartens of Kosovo

Einer physiologisch angemessenen Ernährung in der Kindheit wird eine wichtige Rolle in der physischen, mentalen und emotionalen Entwicklung vom Kindes- bis zum späteren Erwachsenenalter zugeschrieben. Obwohl es bisher nur wenige Daten zum Gesundheits- und Ernährungsstatus im Kosovo gibt, zeigen diese Studien aus der Zeit vor und nach dem Kosovokrieg, dass Unterernährung und der Mangel einiger wichtiger Mikronährstoffe bei Kindern im Vorschulalter vorherrschen. Deshalb ist es erforderlich, die Daten von Kindern im Vorschulalter zu erfassen und zu untersuchen, was zum einen durch anthropometrische Parameter als auch durch die Analyse des Nährstoffgehaltes der Mahlzeiten in Kindergärten (Häufigkeit der Mahlzeiten, adäquate Mengen an z.B. Obst und Gemüse, etc.) in dieser Arbeit erfolgt. Diese wissenschaftliche Untersuchung stellt fest, dass das Wachstum der Vorschulkinder und die angebotene Lebensmittelvielfalt ebenso wie die Nähr- und Energiewerte der dargebotenen Mahlzeiten in Kindergärten im Kosovo nur teilweise den internationalen Ernährungsempfehlungen für diese Altersstufe genügen. Der Anteil an untergewichtigen Kindern wird mit 0,7% ermittelt, während 0,5% stark untergewichtig sind. 1,9% der Kinder leiden unter moderater und 0,8% der Kinder leiden unter schwerer akuter Unterernährung. Der Gewicht/Größe Indikator (12-24 Monate alter Kinder) zeigt, dass keine Kinder als adipös einzustufen sind, während 6,8% übergewichtig sind und 34,1% ein mögliches Risiko für Übergewicht zeigen. Die Verteilung der Geschlechter spielt bei Adipositas keine Rolle, da weder Jungen noch Mädchen adipös sind. Jedoch sind 7,4% der Jungen und 5,9% der Mädchen übergewichtig und 29,6% der Jungen und 41,2% der Mädchen zeigen ein mögliches Risiko für Übergewicht. Der BMI Indikator (24-83 Monate alte Kinder) zeigt, dass der Anteil der adipösen Kinder bei 2,3% liegt, während 8,94% übergewichtig sind und 27,3% ein Risiko für mögliches Übergewicht aufweisen. Was das Geschlecht anbelangt, sind 2,68% der Jungen und 1,44% der Mädchen adipös, 10,88% der Jungen und 5,86% der Mädchen sind übergewichtig und 29,12% der Jungen sowie 25,16% der Mädchen zeigen die Tendenz zu einem möglichen Übergewicht. Die durchschnittliche Energieaufnahme (ganztags – 8 Stunden) reicht von 455 kcal im Kindergarten 4 bis hin zu 992 kcal im Kindergarten 1, was 36% und 79% der empfohlenen Tageszufuhr ausmacht. Der durchschnittliche Verzehr von Proteinen/Aminosäuren der Kinder aus allen untersuchten Kindergärten erweist sich als höher als erforderlich für diese Altersstufe. Trotz der durchschnittlichen Aufnahme von 27% der absoluten Fettmenge beträgt der durchschnittliche Anteil der Energie von SFA, MUFA und PUFA nicht mehr als 35% der empfohlenen Menge. Der Gesamtballaststoffaufnahme (ganztags – 8 Stunden) liegt zwischen 2,3 Gramm und 8,1 Gramm, was 30% und 46% der empfohlenen Tageszufuhr ausmacht. Die Aufnahme von Kalzium, Eisen und besonders Jod liegt unter den Empfehlungen, während die Aufnahme von Chlorid und Natrium wesentlich höher ist als die empfohlene tägliche Menge. Die Aufnahme von Folsäure ist in öffentlichen Kindergärten (ganztags – 8 Stunden) relativ gering und deckt lediglich 23% der empfohlenen Tageszufuhr. Die tägliche Vitamin C Aufnahme der Kinder aus öffentlichen Kindergärten ist ziemlich gering und deckt 23% und 28% der empfohlenen Tageszufuhr. Die Ernährung im Kindergarten zeigt Defizite in der Aufnahme von Mikronährstoffen, besonders von Kalzium, Eisen, Jod, Folsäure, Vitamin A, Vitamin C in öffentlichen Kindergärten und Vitamin D. Die überschrittene Aufnahme von Chlorid und Natrium konnte in allen Kindern beobachtet werden, unabhängig von Geschlecht, Alter und dem Kindergarten. Im Kindergarten konsumieren Kinder mehr Lebensmittel mit einer höheren Energiedichte und werden nicht dazu ermutigt, abwechslungsreichere und gesündere Lebensmittel zu wählen. Verarbeitete und raffinierte Lebensmittel werden von Vorschulkindern bereits ab dem ersten Lebensjahr konsumiert. Der Anteil der Kinder, welche ihre Mahlzeiten auslassen beträgt 12,9%, während 30,2% manchmal ihre Mahlzeiten auslassen. Das Ernährungsmuster zeigt geringe Werte für Vollkornprodukte, Früchte und Gemüse, jedoch hohe Werte für Softdrinks, süße und salzige Lebensmittel. Die Aufnahme von Obst und Gemüse der Vorschulkinder ist viel geringer als die täglich empfohlene Portionsmenge. Die Eltern werden nicht angeleitet, Vorschulkindern bei der Schaffung gesunder Ernährungsgewohnheiten zu helfen, demzufolge ist das kindliche Essverhalten und die Ernährungspraxis von den Eltern und ihrem eigenen Ernährungsstil beeinflusst. Nach dieser Studie muss festgestellt werden, dass gesunde Ernährungsmuster bei Vorschulkindern im Kosovo nicht etabliert sind. Im Vergleich zu den bereits durchgeführten Untersuchungen zeigt diese Studie, dass sich im Kosovo eine Ernährungswende andeutet: das Untergewicht im Vorschulalter nimmt leicht ab, jedoch steigt die Prävalenz von Übergewicht und Adipositas. Der beobachtete Anstieg von Übergewicht und Adipositas ist wahrscheinlich eine Konsequenz des rapiden Wandels des Ernährungsverhaltens nach dem Kosovokrieg. Das Land hat bis jetzt noch keine nationalen und lokalen Strategien oder Programme entwickelt, welche die Routineuntersuchungen von Kindern regulieren, um eventuelle negative Trends zu verfolgen und umzukehren. Zur Zeit gibt es keine Ernährungsrichtlinien und nur sehr wenig Beratung für die Menügestaltung in Kindergärten im Kosovo. Als erster Schritt wird empfohlen, dass die Gesellschaft und die Institutionen im Kosovo die Probleme der Unterernährung, des Übergewichts und der Adipositas sowie deren negativen Auswirkungen auf den gesamten Gesundheitsstatus verschiedener Bevölkerungsgruppen, insbesondere der Kinder, anerkennen. Gesundes Wachstum und die Kontrolle der Unterernährung und des Übergewichts im Kindesalter sollte alle Stufen der Gesellschaft einbeziehen. Gesundheits- und Bildungsbehörden im Kosovo sollten nationale Programme zur empfohlenen täglichen Aufnahme und zu Ernährungsrichtlinien für Kinder im Vorschulalter entwickeln. Die Richtlinien sollten Empfehlungen bezüglich Energie, Makro- und Mikronährstoffe in der täglichen Ernährung Auskunft erteilen aber auch über Ernährungsstile und – verhalten sowie das Strukturieren von Mahlzeiten für Vorschulkinder und andere Bevölkerungsgruppen informieren. Die beobachteten Defizite im Bereich der Mikronährstoffaufnahme wie zum Beispiel von Kalzium, Eisen, Jod, Folsäure, Vitamin A, Vitamin C, Vitamin D ebenso wie die zu hohe Aufnahme und Chlorid und Natrium in öffentlichen Kindergärten sollten sofort angesprochen werden. Erzieher in Kindergärten sollten eine Weiterbildung im Bereich der Entwicklung des Ernährungsverhalten bei Vorschulkindern erhalten und die Definitionen von Unterernährung und Übergewicht und deren Prävention kennen. Partnerschaften zwischen Kindergärten und Eltern sind erforderlich, um den Kindern eine gesündere Lebensmittelwahl zu ermöglichen. Kinder im Vorschulalter und auch Kinder anderer Altersgruppen sollten ermutigt werden, ihren Verzehr an Früchten, Gemüse, Vollkornbrot und –getreide sowie ungesättigten Fettsäuren zu steigern und somit mehr pflanzliche Produkte wie Gemüse und Obst zu ihren Gerichten hinzuzufügen. Dies würde auch den Gehalt an Ballaststoffen erhöhen, der in der Kindheit sehr wichtig ist. Es wird empfohlen, verarbeitete Lebensmittel so häufig wie möglich zu vermeiden und unverarbeitete oder minimal verarbeitete Lebensmittel zu bevorzugen. Es ist erforderlich, ein Ernährungssystem zu entwickeln und außerdem die internationalen Wachstumsstandards (WHO oder andere) anzuwenden, welche das Beobachten des Ernährungsstatus‘ bei Kindern durch Routineuntersuchungen regeln, damit eventuelle Negativtrends verfolgt und umgekehrt werden können. Die Entwicklung universitärer Bildungsprogramme mit Bezug auf Ernährung und die Einführung eines Faches zur gesunden Ernährung und zu gesunden Lebensstilen in die Curricula der Bildungsinstitutionen im Kosovo werden empfohlen. Weitere Untersuchungen zum Gesundheitsstatus und zur Ernährungsqualität bei Vorschulkindern würden zusätzliche Einblicke in die der Auswirkung der frühen Lebensjahre auf Beziehung von Kindheitsernährung und Krankheiten gewähren. Die Untersuchung von Gesundheitsrisiken gekoppelt mit ungesunden Ernährungsgewohnheiten bei Vorschulkindern wird empfohlen. Weitere Studien sind nötig, um die Nahrungszufuhr im Kindergarten zu untersuchen, jedoch sollten Vorschulkinder, welche keinen Kindergarten besuchen, ebenfalls mit eingeschlossen werden. Außerdem sind Studien erforderlich, welche die Auswirkungen des steigenden Konsums gesüßter Getränke und anderer Lebensmittel auf Übergewicht und Adipositas untersuchen. Ferner werden Studien empfohlen, um den Gesundheitseffekt der Ernährungsmuster in der Kindheit zu identifizieren. Außerdem sind periodische Studien erforderlich, um die Veränderung der Prävalenz von Übergewicht und Adipositas bei Kindern zukünftig zu vergleichen. Risikofaktoren für Adipositas bei Kindern durch periodische Studien zu identifizieren ist ebenfalls erforderlich, um die Prävalenz der Adipositas bei Kindern in den künftigen Jahren zu vergleichen.

Nitrogen and carbon dynamics in grassland soils and plants after application of digestate

A better understanding of effects after digestate application on plant community, soil microbial community as well as nutrient and carbon dynamics is crucial for a sustainable grassland management and the prevention of species and functional diversity loss. The specific research objectives of the thesis were: (i) to investigate effects after digestate application on grass species and soil microbial community, especially focussing on nitrogen dynamic in the plant-soil system and to examine the suitability of the digestate from the “integrated generation of solid fuel and biogas from biomass” (IFBB) system as fertilizer (Chapter 3). (ii) to investigate the relationship between plant community and functionality of soil microbial community of extensively managed meadows, taking into account temporal variations during the vegetation period and abiotic soil conditions (Chapter 4). (iii) to investigate the suitability of IFBB-concept implementation as grassland conservation measure for meadows and possible associated effects of IFBB digestate application on plant and soil microbial community as well as soil microbial substrate utilization and catabolic evenness (Chapter 5). Taken together the results indicate that the digestate generated during the IFBB process stands out from digestates of conventional whole crop digestion on the basis of higher nitrogen use efficiency and that it is useful for increasing harvestable biomass and the nitrogen content of the biomass, especially of L. perenne, which is a common species of intensively used grasslands. Further, a medium application rate of IFBB digestate (50% of nitrogen removed with harvested biomass, corresponding to 30 50 kg N ha-1 a-1) may be a possibility for conservation management of different meadows without changing the functional above- and belowground characteristic of the grasslands, thereby offering an ecologically worthwhile alternative to mulching. Overall, the soil microbial biomass and catabolic performance under planted soil was marginally affected by digestate application but rather by soil properties and partly by grassland species and legume occurrence. The investigated extensively managed meadows revealed a high soil catabolic evenness, which was resilient to medium IFBB application rate after a three-year period of application.

Interrelatedness of grazing livestock with vegetation parameters and farmers’ livelihoods in the Mahafaly region, southwestern Madagascar

The study aims to get deeper insight into the highly extensive system of animal husbandry in the Mahafaly region of southwestern Madagascar. It tries to understand the major drivers for pastoral dynamics, land and resource use along a gradient in altitude and vegetation to consider the area’s high spatial and temporal heterogeneity. The study also analyzes the reproductive performance of local livestock as well as the owners’ culling strategies to determine herd dynamics, opportunities for economic growth, and future potential for rural development. Across seasons, plateau herds from both livestock species covered longer distances (cattle 13.6±3.02 km, goats 12.3±3.48 km) and were found further away from the settlements (cattle 3.1±0.96 km, goats 2.8±0.98 km) than those from the coastal plain (walking_dist: cattle 9.5±3.25 km, goats 9.2±2.57 km; max_dist: cattle 2.6±1.28 km, goats 1.8±0.61 km). Transhumant cattle were detected more vulnerable through limited access to pasture land and water resources compared to local herds. Seasonal water shortage has been confirmed as a key constraint on the plateau while livestock keeping along the coast is more limited by dry season forage availability. However, recent security issues and land use conflicts with local crop farmers are gaining importance and force livestock owners to adapt their traditional grazing management, resulting in spatio-temporal variation of livestock numbers and in the impending risk of local overgrazing and degradation of rangelands. Among the 133 plant species consumed by livestock, 13 were determined of major importance for the animals’ nutrition. The nutritive value and digestibility of the natural forage, as well as its abundance in the coastal zone, substantially decreased over the course of the dry season and emphasized the importance of supplementary forage plants, in particular Euphorbia stenoclada. At the same time, an unsustainable utilization and overexploitation of its wild stocks may raise the pressure on the vegetation and pasture resources within the nearby Tsimanampetsotsa National Park. Age at first parturition was 40.5±0.59 months for cattle and 21.3±0.63 months for goats. Both species showed long parturition intervals (cattle 24.2±0.48 months, goats 12.4±0.30 months), mostly due to the maintenance of poorly performing breeding females within the herds. Reported offspring mortality, however, was low with 2.5% of cattle and 18.8% of goats dying before reaching maturity. The analysis of economic information revealed higher than expected market dynamics, especially for zebus, resulting in annual contribution margins of 33 € per cattle unit and 11 € per goat unit. The application of the PRY Herd Life model to simulate herd development for present management and two alternate scenarios confirmed the economic profitability of the current livestock system and showed potential for further productive and economic development. However, this might be clearly limited by the region’s restricted carrying capacity. Summarizing, this study illustrates the highly extensive and resources-driven character of the livestock system in the Mahafaly region, with herd mobility being a central element to cope with seasonal shortages in forage and water. But additional key drivers and external factors are gaining importance and increasingly affect migration decisions and grazing management. This leads to an increased risk of local overgrazing and overexploitation of natural pasture resources and intensifies the tension between pastoral and conservation interests. At the same time, it hampers the region’s agronomic development, which has not yet been fully exploited. The situation therefore demonstrates the need for practical improvement suggestions and implication measures, such as the systematic forestation of supplemental forage plant species in the coastal zone or a stronger integration of animal husbandry and crop production, to sustain the traditional livestock system without compromising peoples’ livelihoods while at the same time minimizing the pastoral impact on the area’s unique nature and environment.

Diversity, local uses and availability of medicinal plants and wild yams in the Mahafaly region of south-western Madagascar

Short summary: This study was undertaken to assess the diversity of plant resources utilized by the local population in south-western Madagascar, the social, ecological and biophysical conditions that drive their uses and availability, and possible alternative strategies for their sustainable use in the region. The study region, ‘Mahafaly region’, located in south-western Madagascar, is one of the country’s most economically, educationally and climatically disadvantaged regions. With an arid steppe climate, the agricultural production is limited by low water availability and a low level of soil nutrients and soil organic carbon. The region comprises the recently extended Tsimanampetsotsa National Park, with numerous sacred and communities forests, which are threatened by slash and burn agriculture and overexploitation of forests resources. The present study analyzed the availability of wild yams and medicinal plants, and their importance for the livelihood of the local population in this region. An ethnobotanical survey was conducted recording the diversity, local knowledge and use of wild yams and medicinal plants utilized by the local communities in five villages in the Mahafaly region. 250 households were randomly selected followed by semi-structured interviews on the socio-economic characteristics of the households. Data allowed us to characterize sociocultural and socioeconomic factors that determine the local use of wild yams and medicinal plants, and to identify their role in the livelihoods of local people. Species-environment relationships and the current spatial distribution of the wild yams were investigated and predicted using ordination methods and a niche based habitat modelling approach. Species response curves along edaphic gradients allowed us to understand the species requirements on habitat conditions. We thus investigated various alternative methods to enhance the wild yam regeneration for their local conservation and their sustainable use in the Mahafaly region. Altogether, six species of wild yams and a total of 214 medicinal plants species from 68 families and 163 genera were identified in the study region. Results of the cluster and discriminant analysis indicated a clear pattern on resource, resulted in two groups of household and characterized by differences in livestock numbers, off-farm activities, agricultural land and harvests. A generalized linear model highlighted that economic factors significantly affect the collection intensity of wild yams, while the use of medicinal plants depends to a higher degree on socio-cultural factors. The gradient analysis on the distribution of the wild yam species revealed a clear pattern for species habitats. Species models based on NPMR (Nonparametric Multiplicative Regression analysis) indicated the importance of vegetation structure, human interventions, and soil characteristics to determine wild yam species distribution. The prediction of the current availability of wild yam resources showed that abundant wild yam resources are scarce and face high harvest intensity. Experiments on yams cultivation revealed that germination of seeds was enhanced by using pre-germination treatments before planting, vegetative regeneration performed better with the upper part of the tubers (corms) rather than the sets of tubers. In-situ regeneration was possible for the upper parts of the wild tubers but the success depended significantly on the type of soil. The use of manure (10-20 t ha¹) increased the yield of the D. alata and D. alatipes by 40%. We thus suggest the promotion of other cultivated varieties of D. alata found regions neighbouring as the Mahafaly Plateau.

Determination of the silvo-melliferous regions of Benin: a nationwide categorisation of the land based on melliferous plants suitable for timber production

Perennial plants are the main pollen and nectar sources for bees in the tropical areas where most of the annual flora are burned in dry seasons. Therefore perennial plants constitute the most reliable bio materials for determining and evaluating the beekeeping regions of the Republic of Benin. A silvo-melliferous region (S-MR) is a geographical area characterised by a particular set of homogenous melliferous plants that can produce timber. Using both the prevailing climatic and the agro-ecological conditions six S-MRs could be identified, i.e. the South region, the Common Central region, the Central West region, the Central North region, the Middle North region and the Extreme North region. At the country level, the melliferous plants were dominated by Vitellaria paradoxa which is common to all regions. The most diversified family was the Caesalpiniaceae (12 species) followed by the Combretaceae (10 species) and Combretum being the richest genus. The effect of dominance is particularly high in the South region where Elaeis guineensis alone represented 72.6% of the tree density and 140% of the total plant importance. The total melliferous plant density varied from 99.3 plants ha^(−1) in the Common Central region to 178.0 plants ha^(−1) in the Central West region. On the basis of nectar and pollen source, the best region for beekeeping is the CentralWest region with 46.7% of nectar producing trees, 9.4% of pollen producing trees and 40.6% of plants that issue both, this in opposition to the South region which was characterised by an unbalanced distribution of melliferous trees.