Effects of Different Feeding Regimes on the Digestibility and Faecal Excretion of Nitrogen, Soluble Carbohydrates and Fibre Fractions in Water Buffaloes kept under Subtropical Conditions

In the course of the ‘Livestock Revolution’, extension and intensification of, among others, ruminant livestock production systems are current phenomena, with all their positive and negative side effects. Manure, one of the inevitable secondary products of livestock rearing, is a valuable source of plant nutrients and its skillful recycling to the soil-plant interface is essential for soil fertility, nutrient - and especially phosphorus - uses efficiency and the preservation or re-establishment of environmentally sustainable farming systems, for which organic farming systems are exemplarily. Against this background, the PhD research project presented here, which was embedded in the DFG-funded Research Training Group 1397 ‘Regulation of soil organic matter and nutrient turnover in organic agriculture ’ investigated possibilities to manipulate the diets of water buffalo (Bubalus bubalis L.) so as to produce manure of desired quality for organic vegetable production, without affecting the productivity of the animals used. Consisting of two major parts, the first study (chapter 2) tested the effects of diets differing in their ratios of carbon (C) to nitrogen (N) and of structural to non-structural carbohydrates on the quality of buffalo manure under subtropical conditions in Sohar, Sultanate of Oman. To this end, two trials were conducted with twelve water buffalo heifers each, using a full Latin Square design. One control and four tests diets were examined during three subsequent 7 day experimental periods preceded each by 21 days adaptation. Diets consisted of varying proportions of Rhodes grass hay, soybean meal, wheat bran, maize, dates, and a commercial concentrate to achieve a (1) high C/N and high NDF (neutral detergent fibre)/SC (soluble carbohydrate) ratio (HH), (2) low C/N and low NDF/SC ratio (LL); (3) high C/N and low NDF/SC ratio (HL) and (4) low C/N and high NDF/SC (LH) ratio. Effects of these diets, which were offered at 1.45 times maintenance requirements of metabolizable energy, and of individual diet characteristics, respectively, on the amount and quality of faeces excreted were determined and statistically analysed. The faeces produced from diets HH and LL were further tested in a companion PhD study (Mr. K. Siegfried) concerning their nutrient release in field experiments with radish and cabbage. The second study (chapter 3) focused on the effects of the above-described experimental diets on the rate of passage of feed particles through the gastrointestinal tract of four randomly chosen animals per treatment. To this end, an oral pulse dose of 683 mg fibre particles per kg live weight marked with Ytterbium (Yb; 14.5 mg Yb g-1 organic matter) was dosed at the start of the 7 day experimental period which followed 21 days of adaptation. During the first two days a sample for Yb determination was kept from each faecal excretion, during days 3 – 7 faecal samples were kept from the first morning and the first evening defecation only. Particle passage was modelled using a one-compartment age-dependent Gamma-2 model. In both studies individual feed intake and faecal excretion were quantified throughout the experimental periods and representative samples of feeds and faeces were subjected to proximate analysis following standard protocols. In the first study the organic matter (OM) intake and excretion of LL and LH buffaloes were significantly lower than of HH and HL animals, respectively. Digestibility of N was highest in LH (88%) and lowest in HH (74%). While NDF digestibility was also highest in LH (85%) it was lowest in LL (78%). Faecal N concentration was positively correlated (P≤0.001) with N intake, and was significantly higher in faeces excreted by LL than by HH animals. Concentrations of fibre and starch in faecal OM were positively affected by the respective dietary concentrations, with NDF being highest in HH (77%) and lowest in LL (63%). The faecal C/N ratio was positively related (P≤0.001) to NDF intake; C/N ratios were 12 and 7 for HH and LL (P≤0.001), while values for HL and LH were 11.5 and 10.6 (P>0.05). The results from the second study showed that dietary N concentration was positively affecting faecal N concentration (P≤0.001), while there was a negative correlation with the faecal concentration of NDF (P≤0.05) and the faecal ratios of NDF/N and C/N (P≤0.001). Particle passage through the mixing compartment was lower (P≤0.05) for HL (0.033 h-1) than for LL (0.043 h-1) animals, while values of 0.034 h-1 and 0.038 h-1 were obtained for groups LH and HH. At 55.4 h, total tract mean retention time was significantly (P≤0.05) lower in group LL that in all other groups where these values varied between 71 h (HH) and 79 h (HL); this was probably due to the high dietary N concentration of diet LL which was negatively correlated with time of first marker appearance in faeces (r= 0.84, P≤0.001), while the dietary C concentration was negatively correlated with particle passage through the mixing compartment (r= 0.57, P≤0.05). The results suggest that manure quality of river buffalo heifers can be considerably influenced by diet composition. Despite the reportedly high fibre digestion capacity of buffalo, digestive processes did not suppress the expression of diet characteristics in the faeces. This is important when aiming at producing a specific manure quality for fertilization purposes in (organic) crop cultivation. Although there was a strong correlation between the ingestion and the faecal excretion of nitrogen, the correlation between diet and faecal C/N ratio was weak. To impact on manure mineralization, the dietary NDF and N concentrations seem to be the key control points, but modulating effects are achieved by the inclusion of starch into the diet. Within the boundaries defined by the animals’ metabolic and (re)productive requirements for energy and nutrients, diet formulation may thus take into account the abiotically and biotically determined manure turnover processes in the soil and the nutrient requirements of the crops to which the manure is applied, so as to increase nutrient use efficiency along the continuum of the feed, the animal, the soil and the crop in (organic) farming systems.

Computation of locally free class groups

We show that the locally free class group of an order in a semisimple algebra over a number field is isomorphic to a certain ray class group. This description is then used to present an algorithm that computes the locally free class group. The algorithm is implemented in MAGMA for the case where the algebra is a group ring over the rational numbers.

Church-Rosser groups and growing context-sensitive groups

A finitely generated group is called a Church-Rosser group (growing context-sensitive group) if it admits a finitely generated presentation for which the word problem is a Church-Rosser (growing context-sensitive) language. Although the Church-Rosser languages are incomparable to the context-free languages under set inclusion, they strictly contain the class of deterministic context-free languages. As each context-free group language is actually deterministic context-free, it follows that all context-free groups are Church-Rosser groups. As the free abelian group of rank 2 is a non-context-free Church-Rosser group, this inclusion is proper. On the other hand, we show that there are co-context-free groups that are not growing context-sensitive. Also some closure and non-closure properties are established for the classes of Church-Rosser and growing context-sensitive groups. More generally, we also establish some new characterizations and closure properties for the classes of Church-Rosser and growing context-sensitive languages.

Computations in Relative Algebraic K-Groups

Let G be finite group and K a number field or a p-adic field with ring of integers O_K. In the first part of the manuscript we present an algorithm that computes the relative algebraic K-group K_0(O_K[G],K) as an abstract abelian group. We solve the discrete logarithm problem, both in K_0(O_K[G],K) and the locally free class group cl(O_K[G]). All algorithms have been implemented in MAGMA for the case K = \IQ. In the second part of the manuscript we prove formulae for the torsion subgroup of K_0(\IZ[G],\IQ) for large classes of dihedral and quaternion groups.

Computation of relativistic symmetry orbitals for finite double point groups

A program is presented for the construction of relativistic symmetry-adapted molecular basis functions. It is applicable to 36 finite double point groups. The algorithm, based on the projection operator method, automatically generates linearly independent basis sets. Time reversal invariance is included in the program, leading to additional selection rules in the non-relativistic limit.

Von den Markenteilungen bis zum Emscher Landschaftspark: Freiraumverluste und Freiraumschutz im Ruhrgebiet

In der vorliegenden Arbeit werden die Erfolge und Misserfolge der Freiraumpolitik im Ruhrgebiet untersucht. Ausgangspunkte sind der Freiraumschwund, der über einen Zeitraum von fast 200 Jahren dokumentiert wird, sowie die Gegenbewegungen, die sich für den Freiraumschutz einsetzen. Nach der Vorstellung einer Freiraumtypologie werden diese Entwicklungen in detaillierten historischen Abrissen für jeden Freiraumtyp dargestellt, woraus sich eine eigene Ruhrgebietsgeschichte - aus der Perspektive der Freiflächen und ihrer Nutzer - ergibt. Folgerichtig beginnt die vorliegende Arbeit nicht mit Kohle und Eisen, sondern mit der Land- und Forstwirtschaft. Anhand historischer Quellen wird die gängige Am-Anfang-war-die-Heide-These widerlegt, denn das Ruhrgebiet war waldreich und ein produktiver Agrarraum. Landwirtschaftliche Flächen- und Waldverluste sind die Basis der Siedlungstätigkeit. Ohne die Gemeinheitsteilungen im 19. Jahrhundert wären die Stadterweiterungen und Industrieansiedlungen im Ruhrgebiet nicht möglich gewesen. Die - in Grundzügen im Ersten Weltkrieg entwickelte - Agrarpolitik mit der Förderung von Produktivitätssteigerungen und Hofaufgaben erleichterte den weiteren Entzug von Agrarflächen, und genauso wirkt heute die Liberalisierung der Agrarmärkte. Alternative Ansätze (z.B. Direktvermarktung) konnten diesen Trend noch nicht aufhalten. Auch das Baumschutzgesetz von 1922 konnte die nationalsozialistischen Kahlschläge, die Waldverluste im Zweiten Weltkrieg und durch den Wiederaufbau nicht verhindern. Erst seit der Deindustrialisierung, der Aufforstung von Halden und der Umweltbewegung nehmen Wälder wieder zu. Demgegenüber treten Ende des 19. Jahrhunderts völlig neue Freiraumtypen auf. Die bürgerschaftliche Kleingartenbewegung wurde dank ihrer Bedeutung für die Ernährung in den Städten seit dem Ersten Weltkrieg vom Staat stark unterstützt, von den Nationalsozialisten gleichgeschaltet, konnte aber in den 1950er Jahren ihren bürgerschaftlichen Charakter und ihre Stärke wieder zurückgewinnen. Auch wenn Kleingärten als bauliche Reserveflächen missbraucht werden, geschieht dies nicht mehr ohne Ersatzland. Im Unterschied hierzu wurde die Stadtparkbewegung kommunalisiert. Sodann entstanden Volksparks mit Sportanlagen, ästhetisch ausgerichtete Gartenschauen, die breit gefächerten Revierparks der 1970er Jahre und neue Parktypen im Emscher Landschaftspark. 1920 wird der Siedlungsverband Ruhrkohlenbezirk gegründet, der mit den Verbandsgrünflächen ein eigenes Instrument zum Freiraumschutz und die Kompetenz zur Fluchtlinien- bzw. Bebauungsplanung erhielt. Inzwischen darf der Verband, vor einigen Jahren in den Regionalverband Ruhr umgewandelt, zu kommunalen Planungen nur noch Stellungnahmen abgeben. Schon früh versuchte der Verband, industrielles Ödland zu begrünen. Nach den Bahndammbegrünungen vor dem Zweiten Weltkrieg hat er seit den 1950er Jahren Halden aufgeforstet, bis in den 1990er Jahren der Aufbau des Emscher Landschaftsparks begann. Zechen- und Industriebrachen werden in neue Parks, Halden und Mülldeponien in Landmarken und Freizeitlandschaften verwandelt. Zu fragen ist, was aus diesen Geschichten für die Freiraumpolitik folgt. Zwei gegensätzliche Thesen werden diskutiert: die Tragedy of the Commons, die im Gemeineigentum die Ursache ökologischer Probleme sieht, während der Common-Property-Ansatz gerade in gemeinschaftlichen Nutzungen einen Ansatz für Problemlösungen sieht. Dabei liegt eine Besonderheit von Freiräumen in ihrem hohen Öffentlichkeitsgrad, d.h. dass sie von vielen Menschen genutzt werden und gleichzeitig mehrere, z.B. produktive, ökologische, politische oder berufliche Funktionen erfüllen. Untersucht wird, inwieweit erfolgreich gesicherte Freiflächen Merkmale von stabilen Common-Property-Institutionen tragen, d.h. welche Funktionen die Freiräume erfüllen, wie ihre Nutzung geregelt ist und vor allem welchen Einfluss die Nutzer auf Entscheidungen haben. Thesenhaft lässt sich zusammenfassen, dass ein Teil der Freiräume sein Wachstum einer derzeit unverzichtbaren Funktion verdankt, nämlich der Camouflage von Müll und Altlasten, die eine bauliche Nutzung ausschließen. Andere Freiräume verdanken ihren Bestand ihren vielfältigen Nutzungen, zur Erholung, durch Denkmäler, für Veranstaltungen, aber auch der Wertsteigerung für umliegende Wohngebiete. Ein kleiner Teil der Freiräume hat tatsächlich einen Common-Property-Charakter: Kleingartenanlagen, die von bürgerschaftlichen Gruppen gegründeten Parks sowie die Flächen, die durch Bürgerinitiativen o.ä. gegen eine bauliche Umnutzung verteidigt werden. Grund genug, um die Idee eines Netzwerks von Parkvereinen aufzugreifen, die sich von bürgerschaftlicher Seite aus für Freiräume einsetzen können.

Ermittlung geeigneter Methoden zur Differenzierung und Qualitätsbeurteilung unterschiedlicher Milchqualitäten aus verschiedenen on-farm-Experimenten

Zusammenfassung: Ziel der Arbeit war ein Methodenvergleich zur Beurteilung der Milchqualität unterschiedlicher Herkünfte. Am Beispiel von Milchproben aus unterschiedlicher Fütterung sowie an Milchproben von enthornten bzw. horntragenden Kühen wurde geprüft, welche der angewendeten Methoden geeignet ist, die Vergleichsproben zu unterscheiden (Differenzierungsfähigkeit der Methoden) und inwieweit eine Qualitätsbeurteilung möglich ist (hinsichtlich Milchleistung, Fett-, Eiweiß-, Lactose- (=F,E,L), Harnstoff-gehalt und Zellzahl (=SCC), Säuerungseigenschaften (=SE), Fettsäuremuster (=FS-Muster), Protein- und Metabolit-Zusammensetzung (=Pr&M), Fluoreszenz-Anregungs-Spektroskopie-Eigenschaften (=FAS) und Steigbild-Merkmalen). Zusätzlich wurde vorab die Steigbildmethode (=SB-M) für das Produkt Rohmilch standardisiert und charakterisiert, um die Reproduzierbarkei der Ergebnisse sicherzustellen. Die Untersuchungen zur SB-M zeigten, dass es Faktoren gibt, die einen deutlichen Einfluß auf die Bildmerkmals-Ausprägung aufweisen. Dazu gehören laborseitig die Klimabedingungen in der Kammer, die Verdünnungsstufe der Probe, die Standzeiten der Vorverdünnung (Reaktionen mit der Luft, Alterung usw.), und tagesspezifisch auftretende Effekte, deren Ursache unbekannt ist. Probenseitig sind sehr starke tierindividuelle Effekte auf die Bildmerkmals-Ausprägung festzustellen, die unabhängig von Fütterung, Alter, Laktationsstadium und Genetik auftreten, aber auch Fütterungsbedingungen der Kühe lassen sich in der Bildmerkmals-Ausprägung wiederfinden. Die Art der Bildauswertung und die dabei berücksichtigten Bildmerkmale ist von großer Bedeutung für das Ergebnis. Die im Rahmen dieser Arbeit untersuchten 46 Probenpaare (aus den Fütterungsvergleichen (=FV) und zur Thematik der Hörner) konnten in 91% der Fälle korrekt gruppiert werden. Die Unterschiede konnten benannt werden. Drei FV wurden auf drei biologisch-dynamischen Höfen unter Praxis-Bedingungen durchgeführt (on-farm-Experimente). Es wurden jeweils zwei vergleichbare Gruppen à mindestens 11 Kühen gebildet, die im Cross-Over-Design gefüttert wurden, mit Probennahme am 14. und 21. Tag je Periode. Es wurden folgende FV untersucht: A: Wiesenheu vs. Kleegrasheu (=KG-Heu), B: Futterrüben (=FuR) vs. Weizen (Ergänzung zu Luzernegrasheu ad lib.), C: Grassilage vs. Grasheu. Bei Versuch A sind die Futtereffekte am deutlichsten, Gruppeneffekte sind gering. Die Milch der Wiesenheu-Variante hat weniger CLA’s und n3- FS und mehr mittellangkettige FS (MCT-FS), das Pr&M-Muster weist auf „Gewebereifung und Ausdifferenzierung“ vs. bei KG-Heu „Nährstoff-fülle, Wachstum und Substanz-Einlagerung und die SB zeigen fein ausdifferenzierte Bildmerkmale. Bei Versuch B sind die Futtereffekte ähnlich groß wie die Gruppeneffekte. Bei vergleichbarer Milchleistung weist die Milch der FuR-Variante höhere F- und E-Gehalte auf, sie säuert schneller und mehr, das FS-Muster weist auf eine „intensive“ Fütterung mit vermehrt MCT- FS, und die Pr&M-Untersuchungen charakterisieren sie mit „Eisentransport und Fetttröpfchenbildung“ vs. bei Weizen „mehr Abwehr-, Regulations- und Transportfunktion“ /. „mehr Lipidsynthese“. Die SB charakterisieren mit „große, kräftige Formen, verwaschen“ vs. „kleine, ausdifferenzierte Bildmerkmal“ für FuR vs. Weizen. Die FAS charakterisiert sie mit „Saftfutter-typisch“ vs. „Samentypisch“. Versuch C weist die geringsten Futtereffekt auf, und deutliche Gruppen- und Zeiteffekte. Milchleistung und F,E,L-Gehalte zeigen keinen Futtereffekt. Die Milch der Heu-Variante säuert schneller, und sie weist mehr SCT und MCT- FS auf. Pr&M-Untersuchungen wurden nicht durchgeführt. Die SB charakterisieren bei Heumilch mit „fein, zart, durchgestaltet, hell“, bei Silagemilch mit „kräftig, wäßrig-verwaschen, dunkler“. Die FAS kann keine konsistenten Unterschiede ermitteln. Der Horn-Einfluß auf die Milchprobe wurde an 34 Probenpaaren untersucht. Von 11 Höfen wurden je zwei möglichst vergleichbare Gruppen zusammengestellt, die sich nur im Faktor „Horn“ unterscheiden, und im wöchentlichen Abstand drei mal beprobt. F,E,L, SCC und SE der Proben sowie die FAS-Messungen weisen keine konsistenten signifikanten Unterschiede zwischen den Horn-Varianten auf. Pr&M weisen bei den untersuchten Proben (von zwei Höfen) auf Horneffekte hin: bei Eh eine Erhöhung von Immun-Abwehr-Funktionen, sowie einer Abnahme phosphorylierter C3- und C6-Metabolite und Beta-Lactoglobulin. Mit den SB ließen sich für die gewählten Merkmale (S-Größe und g.B.-Intensität) keine Horneffekte feststellen. FS, Pr&M-Muster sowie Harnstoffgehalt und SB (und z.T. Milchleistung) zeigten je FV ähnliche Effekt-Intensitäten für Futter-, Gruppen- und Zeiteffekte, und konnten die Cross-Over-Effekte gut wiedergeben. F- und E-Gehalte konnten neben tierindividuellen Effekten nur in FV B auch Futtereffekte aufzeigen. In FV C zeigten die SE der Proben den deutlichsten Futtereffekt, die anderen Methoden zeigten hier vorrangig Gruppen-Effekte, gefolgt von Futter- und Zeiteffekten. Die FAS zeigte den SB vergleichbare Ergebnisse, jedoch weniger sensibel reagierend. Die Interpretation von Qualitätsaspekten war bei konsistent differenzierbaren Proben (FV A, B, C) am fundiertesten mit Hilfe der FS möglich, da über die Synthese von FS und beeinflussende Faktoren schon vielfältige Erkenntnisse vorliegen. Das Pr&M-Muster war nach einer weiteren Methodenentwicklung bei der Deutung von Stoffwechselprozessen sehr hilfreich. Die FAS konnte z.T. eine zu der Fütterungsvariante passende Charakterisierung liefern. Für die SB-M fehlt es noch an Referenzmaterial, um Angaben zu Qualitätsaspekten zu machen, wenngleich Probenunterschiede aufgezeigt und Proben-Eigenschaften charakterisiert werden konnten.

Effects of dietary lipid source on growth, digestibility and tissue fatty acid composition of Heterobranchus longifilis fingerlings

One of the major problems facing aquaculture is the inadequate supply of fish oil mostly used for fish feed manufacturing. The continued growth in aquaculture production cannot depend on this finite feed resources, therefore, it is imperative that cheap and readily available substitutes that do not compromise fish growth and fillet quality be found. To achieve this, a 12-week feeding trial with Heterobranchus longifilis fed diets differing in lipid source was conducted. Diets were supplemented with 6% lipid as fish oil, soybean oil, palm oil, coconut oil, groundnut oil and melon seed oil. Triplicate groups of 20 H. longifilis were fed the experimental diets two times a day to apparent satiation, over 84 days. Growth, digestibility, and muscle fatty acid profile were measured to assess diet effects. At the end of the study, survival, feed intake and hepatosomatic index were similar for fish fed experimental diets. However, weight gain, SGR and FCR of fish fed soybean oil-based diet was significantly reduced. Apparent nutrient digestibility coefficients were significantly lower in fish fed soybean, coconut and groundnut oil-based diets. Fillet and hepatic fatty acid compositions differed and reflected the fatty acid compositions of the diets. Docosahexaenoic acid (22:6n-3), 20:5n-3 and 20:4n-6 were conserved in vegetable oils-based diets fed fish possibly due to synthesis of HUFA from 18:3n-3 and 18:4n-6. Palm oil diet was the least expensive, and had the best economic conversion ratio. The use of vegetable oils in the diets had positive effect on growth and fillet composition of H. longifilis.

Status and Potential of Smallholder Livestock Production Systems in Xishuangbanna, southern P.R. China

With Chinas rapid economic development during the last decades, the national demand for livestock products has quadrupled within the last 20 years. Most of that increase in demand has been answered by subsidized industrialized production systems, while million of smallholders, which still provide the larger share of livestock products in the country, have been neglected. Fostering those systems would help China to lower its strong urban migration streams, enhance the livelihood of poorer rural population and provide environmentally save livestock products which have a good chance to satisfy customers demand for ecological food. Despite their importance, China’s smallholder livestock keepers have not yet gained appropriate attention from governmental authorities and researchers. However, profound analysis of those systems is required so that adequate support can lead to a better resource utilization and productivity in the sector. To this aim, this pilot study analyzes smallholder livestock production systems in Xishuangbanna, located in southern China. The area is bordered by Lao and Myanmar and geographically counts as tropical region. Its climate is characterized by dry and temperate winters and hot summers with monsoon rains from May to October. While the regionis plain, at about 500 m asl above sea level in the south, outliers of the Himalaya mountains reach out into the north of Xishuangbanna, where the highest peak reaches 2400 m asl. Except of one larger city, Jinghong, Xishuangbanna mainly is covered by tropical rainforest, areas under agricultural cultivation and villages. The major income is generated through inner-Chinese tourism and agricultural production. Intensive rubber plantations are distinctive for the lowland plains while small-scaled traditional farms are scattered in the mountane regions. In order to determine the current state and possible future chances of smallholder livestock production in that region, this study analyzed the current status of the smallholder livestock sector in the Naban River National Nature Reserve (NRNNR), an area which is largely representative for the whole prefecture. It covers an area of about 50square kilometer and reaches from 470 up to 2400 m asl. About 5500 habitants of different ethnic origin are situated in 24 villages. All data have been collected between October 2007 and May 2010. Three major objectives have been addressed in the study: 1. Classifying existing pig production systems and exploring respective pathways for development 2. Quantifying the performance of pig breeding systemsto identify bottlenecks for production 3. Analyzing past and current buffalo utilization to determine the chances and opportunities of buffalo keeping in the future In order to classify the different pig production s ystems, a baseline survey (n=204, stratified cluster sampling) was carried out to gain data about livestock species, numbers, management practices, cultivated plant species and field sizes as well associo-economic characteristics. Sampling included two clusters at village level (altitude, ethnic affiliation), resulting in 13 clusters of which 13-17 farms were interviewed respectively. Categorical Principal Component Analysis (CatPCA) and a two-step clustering algorithm have been applied to identify determining farm characteristics and assort recorded households into classes of livestock production types. The variables keep_sow_yes/no, TLU_pig, TLU_buffalo, size_of_corn_fields, altitude_class, size_of_tea_plantationand size_of_rubber_fieldhave been found to be major determinants for the characterization of the recorded farms. All farms have extensive or semi-intensive livestock production, pigs and buffaloes are predominant livestock species while chicken and aquaculture are available but play subordinate roles for livelihoods. All pig raisers rely on a single local breed, which is known as Small Ear Pig (SMEP) in the region. Three major production systemshave been identified: Livestock-corn based LB; 41%), rubber based (RB; 39%) and pig based (PB;20%) systems. RB farms earn high income from rubber and fatten 1.9 ±1.80 pigs per household (HH), often using purchased pig feed at markets. PB farms own similar sized rubber plantations and raise 4.7 ±2.77 pigs per HH, with fodder mainly being cultivated and collected in theforest. LB farms grow corn, rice and tea and keep 4.6 ±3.32 pigs per HH, also fed with collected and cultivated fodder. Only 29% of all pigs were marketed (LB: 20%; RB: 42%; PB: 25%), average annual mortality was 4.0 ±4.52 pigs per farm (LB: 4.6 ±3.68; RB: 1.9 ±2.14; PB: 7.1 ±10.82). Pig feed mainly consists of banana pseudo stem, corn and rice hives and is prepared in batches about two to three times per week. Such fodder might be sufficient in energy content but lacks appropriate content of protein. Pigs therefore suffer from malnutrition, which becomes most critical in the time before harvest season around October. Farmers reported high occurrences of gastrointestinal parasites in carcasses and often pig stables were wet and filled with manure. Deficits in nutritional and hygienic management are major limits for development and should be the first issues addressed to improve productivity. SME pork was found to be known and referred by local customers in town and by richer lowland farmers. However, high prices and lacking availability of SME pork at local wet-markets were the reasons which limited purchase. If major management constraints are overcome, pig breeders (PB and LB farms) could increase the share of marketed pigs for town markets and provide fatteners to richer RB farmers. RB farmers are interested in fattening pigs for home consumption but do not show any motivation for commercial pig raising. To determine the productivity of input factors in pig production, eproductive performance, feed quality and quantity as well as weight development of pigs under current management were recorded. The data collection included a progeny history survey covering 184 sows and 437 farrows, bi-weekly weighing of 114 pigs during a 16-months time-span on 21 farms (10 LB and 11 PB) as well as the daily recording of feed quality and quantity given to a defined number of pigs on the same 21 farms. Feed samples of all recorded ingredients were analyzed for their respective nutrient content. Since no literature values on thedigestibility of banana pseudo stem – which is a major ingredient of traditional pig feed in NRNNR – were found, a cross-sectional digestibility trial with 2x4 pigs has been conducted on a station in the research area. With the aid of PRY Herd Life Model, all data have been utilized to determine thesystems’ current (Status Quo = SQ) output and the productivity of the input factor “feed” in terms of saleable life weight per kg DM feed intake and monetary value of output per kg DM feed intake.Two improvement scenarios were simulated, assuming 1) that farmers adopt a culling managementthat generates the highest output per unit input (Scenario 1; SC I) and 2) that through improved feeding, selected parameters of reproduction are improved by 30% (SC II). Daily weight gain averaged 55 ± 56 g per day between day 200 and 600. The average feed energy content of traditional feed mix was 14.92 MJ ME. Age at first farrowing averaged 14.5 ± 4.34 months, subsequent inter-farrowing interval was 11.4 ± 2.73 months. Littersize was 5.8 piglets and weaning age was 4.3 ± 0.99 months. 18% of piglets died before weaning. Simulating pig production at actualstatus, it has been show that monetary returns on inputs (ROI) is negative (1:0.67), but improved (1:1.2) when culling management was optimized so that highest output is gained per unit feed input. If in addition better feeding, controlled mating and better resale prices at fixed dates were simulated, ROI further increased to 1:2.45, 1:2.69, 1:2.7 and 1:3.15 for four respective grower groups. Those findings show the potential of pork production, if basic measures of improvement are applied. Futureexploration of the environment, including climate, market-season and culture is required before implementing the recommended measures to ensure a sustainable development of a more effective and resource conserving pork production in the future. The two studies have shown that the production of local SME pigs plays an important role in traditional farms in NRNNR but basic constraints are limiting their productivity. However, relatively easy approaches are sufficient for reaching a notable improvement. Also there is a demand for more SME pork on local markets and, if basic constraints have been overcome, pig farmers could turn into more commercial producers and provide pork to local markets. By that, environmentally safe meat can be offered to sensitive consumers while farmers increase their income and lower the risk of external shocks through a more diverse income generating strategy. Buffaloes have been found to be the second important livestock species on NRNNR farms. While they have been a core resource of mixed smallholderfarms in the past, the expansion of rubber tree plantations and agricultural mechanization are reasons for decreased swamp buffalo numbers today. The third study seeks to predict future utilization of buffaloes on different farm types in NRNNR by analyzing the dynamics of its buffalo population and land use changes over time and calculating labor which is required for keeping buffaloes in view of the traction power which can be utilized for field preparation. The use of buffaloes for field work and the recent development of the egional buffalo population were analyzed through interviews with 184 farmers in 2007/2008 and discussions with 62 buffalo keepers in 2009. While pig based farms (PB; n=37) have abandoned buffalo keeping, 11% of the rubber based farms (RB; n=71) and 100% of the livestock-corn based farms (LB; n=76) kept buffaloes in 2008. Herd size was 2.5 ±1.80 (n=84) buffaloes in early 2008 and 2.2 ±1.69 (n=62) in 2009. Field work on own land was the main reason forkeeping buffaloes (87.3%), but lending work buffaloes to neighbors (79.0%) was also important. Other purposes were transport of goods (16.1%), buffalo trade (11.3%) and meat consumption(6.4%). Buffalo care required 6.2 ±3.00 working hours daily, while annual working time of abuffalo was 294 ±216.6 hours. The area ploughed with buffaloes remained constant during the past 10 years despite an expansion of land cropped per farm. Further rapid replacement of buffaloes by tractors is expected in the near future. While the work economy is drastically improved by the use of tractors, buffaloes still can provide cheap work force and serve as buffer for economic shocks on poorer farms. Especially poor farms, which lack alternative assets that could quickly be liquidizedin times of urgent need for cash, should not abandon buffalo keeping. Livestock has been found to be a major part of small mixed farms in NRNNR. The general productivity was low in both analyzed species, buffaloes and pigs. Productivity of pigs can be improved through basic adjustments in feeding, reproductive and hygienic management, and with external support pig production could further be commercialized to provide pork and weaners to local markets and fattening farms. Buffalo production is relatively time intensive, and only will be of importance in the future to very poor farms and such farms that cultivate very small terraces on steep slopes. These should be encouraged to further keep buffaloes. With such measures, livestock production in NRNNR has good chances to stay competitive in the future.

Water for Food: Feeding what?

Key Findings: “Water for food” is not necessarily synonymous with “water for food security. Countries with similar geological conditions face very different geopolitical realities; national water policies and agricultural motivations reflect this. Water policies and research should seek to understand “water for food” and its connections with economics, the environment, and securities more broadly

Opportunities and constraints of peri-urban buffalo and dairy cattle systems in Faisalabad, Punjab, Pakistan

In the big cities of Pakistan, peri-urban dairy production plays an important role for household income generation and the supply of milk and meat to the urban population. On the other hand, milk production in general, and peri-urban dairy production in particular, faces numerous problems that have been well known for decades. Peri-urban dairy producers have been especially neglected by politicians as well as non-government-organizations (NGOs). Against this background, a study in Pakistan’s third largest city, Faisalabad (Punjab Province), was carried out with the aims of gathering basic information, determining major constraints and identifying options for improvements of the peri-urban milk production systems. For data collection, 145 peri-urban households (HH) engaged in dairy production were interviewed face to face using a structured and pretested questionnaire with an interpreter. For analyses, HH were classified into three wealth groups according to their own perception. Thus, 38 HH were poor, 95 HH well off and 12 HH rich (26.2%, 65.5% and 8.3%, respectively). The richer the respondents perceived their HH, the more frequently they were actually in possession of high value HH assets like phones, bank accounts, motorbikes, tractors and cars. Although there was no difference between the wealth groups with respect to the number of HH members (about 10, range: 1 to 23), the educational level of the HH heads differed significantly: on average, heads of poor HH had followed education for 3 years, compared to 6 years for well off HH and 8 years for rich HH. About 40% of the poor and well off HH also had off-farm incomes, while the percentage was much higher - two thirds (67%) - for the rich HH. The majority of the HH were landless (62%); the rest (55 HH) possessed agricultural land from 0.1 to 10.1 ha (average 2.8 ha), where they were growing green fodder: maize, sorghum and pearl millet in summer; berseem, sugar cane and wheat were grown in winter. Dairy animals accounted for about 60% of the herds; the number of dairy animals per HH ranged from 2 to 50 buffaloes (Nili-Ravi breed) and from 0 to 20 cows (mostly crossbred, also Sahiwal). About 37% (n=54) of the HH did not keep cattle. About three quarters of the dairy animals were lactating. The majority of the people taking care of the animals were family workers; 17.3% were hired labourers (exclusively male), employed by 11 rich and 32 well off HH; none of the poor HH employed workers, but the percentages were 33.7% for the well off and 91.7% for the rich HH. The total number of workers increased significantly with increasing wealth (poor: 2.0; well off:2.5; rich: 3.4). Overall, 69 female labourers were recorded, making up 16.8% of employed workers and one fourth of the HH’s own labourers. Apparently, their only duty was to clean the animals´ living areas; only one of them was also watering and showering the animals. Poor HH relied more on female workers than the other two groups: 27.1% of the workers of poor HH were women, but only 14.8% and 6.8% of the labour force of well off and rich HH were female. Two thirds (70%) of the HH sold milk to dhodis (middlemen) and one third (35%) to neighbours; three HH (2%) did doorstep delivery and one HH (1%) had its own shop. The 91 HH keeping both species usually sold mixed milk (97%). Clients for mixed and pure buffalo milk were dhodis (78%, respectively 59%) and neighbours (28%, respectively 47%). The highest milk prices per liter (Pakistani Rupees, 100 PKR @ 0.8 Euro) were paid by alternative clients (44 PKR; 4 HH), followed by neighbours (40 PKR, 50 HH); dhodis paid lower prices (36 PKR, 99 HH). Prices for pure buffalo and mixed milk did not differ significantly. However, HH obtaining the maximum price from the respective clients for the respective type of milk got between 20% (mixed milk, alternative clients) and 68% (mixed milk, dhodi) more than HH fetching the minimum price. Some HH (19%) reported 7% higher prices for the current summer than the preceding winter. Amount of milk sold and distance from the HH to the city center did not influence milk prices. Respondents usually named problems that directly affected their income and that were directly and constantly visible to them, such as high costs, little space and fodder shortages. Other constraints that are only influencing their income indirectly, e.g. the relatively low genetic potential of their animals due to neglected breeding as well as the short- and long-term health problems correlated with imbalanced feeding and insufficient health care, were rarely named. The same accounts for problems accompanying improper dung management (storage, disposal, burning instead of recycling) for the environment and human health. Most of the named problems are linked to each other and should be addressed within the context of the entire system. Therefore, further research should focus on systematic investigations and improvement options, taking a holistic and interdisciplinary approach instead of only working in single fields. Concerted efforts of dairy farmers, researchers, NGOs and political decision makers are necessary to create an economic, ecological and social framework that allows dairy production to serve the entire society. For this, different improvement options should be tested in terms of their impact on environment and income of the farmers, as well as feasibility and sustainability in the peri-urban zones of Faisalabad.