A Modeling Analysis of Changing Global Land Use as affected by Changing Demands for Wood Products

The 21st century has brought new challenges for forest management at a time when globalization in world trade is increasing and global climate change is becoming increasingly apparent. In addition to various goods and services like food, feed, timber or biofuels being provided to humans, forest ecosystems are a large store of terrestrial carbon and account for a major part of the carbon exchange between the atmosphere and the land surface. Depending on the stage of the ecosystems and/or management regimes, forests can be either sinks, or sources of carbon. At the global scale, rapid economic development and a growing world population have raised much concern over the use of natural resources, especially forest resources. The challenging question is how can the global demands for forest commodities be satisfied in an increasingly globalised economy, and where could they potentially be produced? For this purpose, wood demand estimates need to be integrated in a framework, which is able to adequately handle the competition for land between major land-use options such as residential land or agricultural land. This thesis is organised in accordance with the requirements to integrate the simulation of forest changes based on wood extraction in an existing framework for global land-use modelling called LandSHIFT. Accordingly, the following neuralgic points for research have been identified: (1) a review of existing global-scale economic forest sector models (2) simulation of global wood production under selected scenarios (3) simulation of global vegetation carbon yields and (4) the implementation of a land-use allocation procedure to simulate the impact of wood extraction on forest land-cover. Modelling the spatial dynamics of forests on the global scale requires two important inputs: (1) simulated long-term wood demand data to determine future roundwood harvests in each country and (2) the changes in the spatial distribution of woody biomass stocks to determine how much of the resource is available to satisfy the simulated wood demands. First, three global timber market models are reviewed and compared in order to select a suitable economic model to generate wood demand scenario data for the forest sector in LandSHIFT. The comparison indicates that the ‘Global Forest Products Model’ (GFPM) is most suitable for obtaining projections on future roundwood harvests for further study with the LandSHIFT forest sector. Accordingly, the GFPM is adapted and applied to simulate wood demands for the global forestry sector conditional on selected scenarios from the Millennium Ecosystem Assessment and the Global Environmental Outlook until 2050. Secondly, the Lund-Potsdam-Jena (LPJ) dynamic global vegetation model is utilized to simulate the change in potential vegetation carbon stocks for the forested locations in LandSHIFT. The LPJ data is used in collaboration with spatially explicit forest inventory data on aboveground biomass to allocate the demands for raw forest products and identify locations of deforestation. Using the previous results as an input, a methodology to simulate the spatial dynamics of forests based on wood extraction is developed within the LandSHIFT framework. The land-use allocation procedure specified in the module translates the country level demands for forest products into woody biomass requirements for forest areas, and allocates these on a five arc minute grid. In a first version, the model assumes only actual conditions through the entire study period and does not explicitly address forest age structure. Although the module is in a very preliminary stage of development, it already captures the effects of important drivers of land-use change like cropland and urban expansion. As a first plausibility test, the module performance is tested under three forest management scenarios. The module succeeds in responding to changing inputs in an expected and consistent manner. The entire methodology is applied in an exemplary scenario analysis for India. A couple of future research priorities need to be addressed, particularly the incorporation of plantation establishments; issue of age structure dynamics; as well as the implementation of a new technology change factor in the GFPM which can allow the specification of substituting raw wood products (especially fuelwood) by other non-wood products.

Assessment of the strategies of organic fruit production and fruit drying in Uganda

Organic agriculture in Uganda is developing at a fast pace and despite this trend Uganda is still unable to produce enough fresh and dry organic fruits mainly pineapple to meet the exporters demand. This current research investigated the strategies of farmers at production level by assessing the pros and cons of fruit growing, organic agriculture and fruit drying in order to understand the underlying causal factor for the low production of organic dry fruits in a major fruit producing district of Uganda. The study was carried out in two separate and distinctive areas; one which only produces and export fresh organic pineapple and the other which exports dried fruits (mainly pineapple and papaya). About 10% of the farmers in the two study areas were surveyed using questionnaires which were further followed by semi-structured interviews and participatory rural appraisals activities with various types of farmers in order to understand the different decisions and strategies of farmers. 82% and 74% of farmers in the two study areas grew fruits as it gave better economic returns and for 77% and 90% respectively in the two study areas, the reasons for growing fruit was the ease of selling compared to other crops. All the farmers were relying on coffee husk for growing organic pineapples. However, 50% of the farmers want to grow pineapples (either organic or conventional) but couldn't afford to buy coffee husk. Fruit drying was mainly a strategy to utilize cheap fruits during harvesting seasons for value addition. 71% and 42% of farmers in the two study areas wanted to dry fruits but it was beyond their economic capacity to buy the driers. Decision of the farmers whether to grow fruits or cereals, organic or conventional agriculture and selling the fruits as fresh or dry were dependent mainly on the economic, knowledge and resource availability of each type of practices. It is concluded that the main barrier for an increase in the production of organic dried fruits is at the processing level, and the limited capacity for investments in drying facilities.

Quality oriented drying of Lemon Balm (Melissa officinalis L.)

Heilkräuter sind während des Trocknungsprozesses zahlreichen Einflüssen ausgesetzt, welche die Qualität des Endproduktes entscheidend beeinflussen. Diese Forschungsarbeit beschäftigt sich mit der Trocknung von Zitronenmelisse (Melissa officinalis .L) zu einem qualitativ hochwertigen Endprodukt. Es werden Strategien zur Trocknung vorgeschlagen, die experimentelle und mathematische Aspekte mit einbeziehen, um bei einer adäquaten Produktivität die erforderlichen Qualitätsmerkmale im Hinblick auf Farbeänderung und Gehalt an ätherischen Ölen zu erzielen. Getrocknete Zitronenmelisse kann zurzeit, auf Grund verschiedener Probleme beim Trocknungsvorgang, den hohen Qualitätsanforderungen des Marktes nicht immer genügen. Es gibt keine standardisierten Informationen zu den einzelnen und komplexen Trocknungsparametern. In der Praxis beruht die Trocknung auf Erfahrungswerten, bzw. werden Vorgehensweisen bei der Trocknung anderer Pflanzen kopiert, und oftmals ist die Trocknung nicht reproduzierbar, oder beruht auf subjektiven Annäherungen. Als Folge dieser nicht angepassten Wahl der Trocknungsparameter entstehen oftmals Probleme wie eine Übertrocknung, was zu erhöhten Bruchverlusten der Blattmasse führt, oder eine zu geringe Trocknung, was wiederum einen zu hohen Endfeuchtegehalt im Produkt zur Folge hat. Dies wiederum mündet zwangsläufig in einer nicht vertretbaren Farbänderung und einen übermäßigen Verlust an ätherischen Ölen. Auf Grund der unterschiedlichen thermischen und mechanischen Eigenschaften von Blättern und Stängel, ist eine ungleichmäßige Trocknung die Regel. Es wird außerdem eine unnötig lange Trocknungsdauer beobachtet, die zu einem erhöhten Energieverbrauch führt. Das Trocknen in solaren Tunneln Trocknern bringt folgendes Problem mit sich: wegen des ungeregelten Strahlungseinfalles ist es schwierig die Trocknungstemperatur zu regulieren. Ebenso beeinflusst die Strahlung die Farbe des Produktes auf Grund von photochemischen Reaktionen. Zusätzlich erzeugen die hohen Schwankungen der Strahlung, der Temperatur und der Luftfeuchtigkeit instabile Bedingungen für eine gleichmäßige und kontrollierbare Trocknung. In Anbetracht der erwähnten Probleme werden folgende Forschungsschwerpunkte in dieser Arbeit gesetzt: neue Strategien zur Verbesserung der Qualität werden entwickelt, mit dem Ziel die Trocknungszeit und den Energieverbrauch zu verringern. Um eine Methodik vorzuschlagen, die auf optimalen Trocknungsparameter beruht, wurden Temperatur und Luftfeuchtigkeit als Variable in Abhängigkeit der Trocknungszeit, des ätherischer Ölgehaltes, der Farbänderung und der erforderliche Energie betrachtet. Außerdem wurden die genannten Parametern und deren Auswirkungen auf die Qualitätsmerkmale in solaren Tunnel Trocknern analysiert. Um diese Ziele zu erreichen, wurden unterschiedliche Ansätze verfolgt. Die Sorption-Isothermen und die Trocknungskinetik von Zitronenmelisse und deren entsprechende Anpassung an verschiedene mathematische Modelle wurden erarbeitet. Ebenso wurde eine alternative gestaffelte Trocknung in gestufte Schritte vorgenommen, um die Qualität des Endproduktes zu erhöhen und gleichzeitig den Gesamtenergieverbrauch zu senken. Zusätzlich wurde ein statistischer Versuchsplan nach der CCD-Methode (Central Composite Design) und der RSM-Methode (Response Surface Methodology) vorgeschlagen, um die gewünschten Qualitätsmerkmalen und den notwendigen Energieeinsatz in Abhängigkeit von Lufttemperatur und Luftfeuchtigkeit zu erzielen. Anhand der gewonnenen Daten wurden Regressionsmodelle erzeugt, und das Verhalten des Trocknungsverfahrens wurde beschrieben. Schließlich wurde eine statistische DOE-Versuchsplanung (design of experiments) angewandt, um den Einfluss der Parameter auf die zu erzielende Produktqualität in einem solaren Tunnel Trockner zu bewerten. Die Wirkungen der Beschattung, der Lage im Tunnel, des Befüllungsgrades und der Luftgeschwindigkeit auf Trocknungszeit, Farbänderung und dem Gehalt an ätherischem Öl, wurde analysiert. Ebenso wurden entsprechende Regressionsmodelle bei der Anwendung in solaren Tunneltrocknern erarbeitet. Die wesentlichen Ergebnisse werden in Bezug auf optimale Trocknungsparameter in Bezug auf Qualität und Energieverbrauch analysiert.

Using a Double-pass solar drier for drying of bamboo shoots

Three different drying methods, a forced convection double-pass solar drier (DPSD), typical cabinet type natural convection solar drier (CD) and traditional open-sun drying (OSD) were used for draying of bamboo shoots in central Vietnam. During drying the operational parameters such as drying temperature, relative humidity, air velocity, insolation and water evaporation have been recorded hourly. The mean drying temperatures and relative humidity in the drying chamber were 55.2°C, 23.7%; 47.5°C, 37,6%; 36.2°C, 47.8% in DPSD, CD and OSD, respectively. The mean global radiation during all experimental runs was 670 Wm^−2. The result also shows that fastest drying process was occurred in DPSD where the falling-rate period was achieved after 7 hours, in change to OSD where it took 16 hours. The overall drying efficiency was 23.11%, 15.83% and 9.73% in case of DPSD, CD and OSD, respectively. Although the construction cost of DPSD was significantly higher than in CD, the drying costs per one kilogram of bamboo shoots were by 42.8% lower in case of DPSD as compared to CD. Double-pass solar drier was found to be technically and economically suitable for drying of bamboo shoots under the specific conditions in central Vietnam and in all cases, the use of this drier led to considerable reduction in drying time in comparison to traditional open-sun drying.

Short-term effects of human urine fertiliser and wood ash on soil pH and electrical conductivity

The fertiliser value of human urine has been examined on several crops, yet little is known about its effects on key soil properties of agronomic significance. This study investigated temporal soil salinization potential of human urine fertiliser (HUF). It further looked at combined effects of human urine and wood ash (WA) on soil pH, urine-NH_3 volatilisation, soil electrical conductivity (EC), and basic cation contents of two Acrisols (Adenta and Toje series) from the coastal savannah zone of Ghana. The experiment was a factorial design conducted in the laboratory for 12 weeks. The results indicated an increase in soil pH by 1.2 units for Adenta series and 1 unit for Toje series after one week of HUF application followed by a decline by about 2 pH units for both soil types after twelve weeks. This was attributed to nitrification of ammonium to nitrate leading to acidification. The EC otherwise increased with HUF application creating slightly saline conditions in Toje series and non-saline conditions in Adenta series. When WA was applied with HUF, both soil pH and EC increased. In contrast, the HUF alone slightly salinized Toje series, but both soils remained non-saline whenWA and HUF were applied together. The application ofWA resulted in two-fold increase in Ca, Mg, K, and Na content compared to HUF alone. Hence, WA is a promising amendment of acid soils and could reduce the effect of soluble salts in human urine fertilizer, which is likely to cause soil salinity.

Optimization of Processing Technology for Commercial Drying of Bananas (Matooke)

Summary - Cooking banana is one of the most important crops in Uganda; it is a staple food and source of household income in rural areas. The most common cooking banana is locally called matooke, a Musa sp triploid acuminate genome group (AAA-EAHB). It is perishable and traded in fresh form leading to very high postharvest losses (22-45%). This is attributed to: non-uniform level of harvest maturity, poor handling, bulk transportation and lack of value addition/processing technologies, which are currently the main challenges for trade and export, and diversified utilization of matooke. Drying is one of the oldest technologies employed in processing of agricultural produce. A lot of research has been carried out on drying of fruits and vegetables, but little information is available on matooke. Drying of matooke and milling it to flour extends its shelf-life is an important means to overcome the above challenges. Raw matooke flour is a generic flour developed to improve shelf stability of the fruit and to find alternative uses. It is rich in starch (80 - 85%db) and subsequently has a high potential as a calorie resource base. It possesses good properties for both food and non-food industrial use. Some effort has been done to commercialize the processing of matooke but there is still limited information on its processing into flour. It was imperative to carry out an in-depth study to bridge the following gaps: lack of accurate information on the maturity window within which matooke for processing into flour can be harvested leading to non-uniform quality of matooke flour; there is no information on moisture sorption isotherm for matooke from which the minimum equilibrium moisture content in relation to temperature and relative humidity is obtainable, below which the dry matooke would be microbiologically shelf-stable; and lack of information on drying behavior of matooke and standardized processing parameters for matooke in relation to physicochemical properties of the flour. The main objective of the study was to establish the optimum harvest maturity window and optimize the processing parameters for obtaining standardized microbiologically shelf-stable matooke flour with good starch quality attributes. This research was designed to: i) establish the optimum maturity harvest window within which matooke can be harvested to produce a consistent quality of matooke flour, ii) establish the sorption isotherms for matooke, iii) establish the effect of process parameters on drying characteristics of matooke, iv) optimize the drying process parameters for matooke, v) validate the models of maturity and optimum process parameters and vi) standardize process parameters for commercial processing of matooke. Samples were obtained from a banana plantation at Presidential Initiative on Banana Industrial Development (PIBID), Technology Business Incubation Center (TBI) at Nyaruzunga – Bushenyi in Western Uganda. A completely randomized design (CRD) was employed in selecting the banana stools from which samples for the experiments were picked. The cultivar Mbwazirume which is soft cooking and commonly grown in Bushenyi was selected for the study. The static gravitation method recommended by COST 90 Project (Wolf et al., 1985), was used for determination of moisture sorption isotherms. A research dryer developed for this research. All experiments were carried out in laboratories at TBI. The physiological maturity of matooke cv. mbwazirume at Bushenyi is 21 weeks. The optimum harvest maturity window for commercial processing of matooke flour (Raw Tooke Flour - RTF) at Bushenyi is between 15-21 weeks. The finger weight model is recommended for farmers to estimate harvest maturity for matooke and the combined model of finger weight and pulp peel ratio is recommended for commercial processors. Matooke isotherms exhibited type II curve behavior which is characteristic of foodstuffs. The GAB model best described all the adsorption and desorption moisture isotherms. For commercial processing of matooke, in order to obtain a microbiologically shelf-stable dry product. It is recommended to dry it to moisture content below or equal to 10% (wb). The hysteresis phenomenon was exhibited by the moisture sorption isotherms for matooke. The isoteric heat of sorption for both adsorptions and desorption isotherms increased with decreased moisture content. The total isosteric heat of sorption for matooke: adsorption isotherm ranged from 4,586 – 2,386 kJ/kg and desorption isotherm from 18,194– 2,391 kJ/kg for equilibrium moisture content from 0.3 – 0.01 (db) respectively. The minimum energy required for drying matooke from 80 – 10% (wb) is 8,124 kJ/kg of water removed. Implying that the minimum energy required for drying of 1 kg of fresh matooke from 80 - 10% (wb) is 5,793 kJ. The drying of matooke takes place in three steps: the warm-up and the two falling rate periods. The drying rate constant for all processing parameters ranged from 5,793 kJ and effective diffusivity ranged from 1.5E-10 - 8.27E-10 m2/s. The activation energy (Ea) for matooke was 16.3kJ/mol (1,605 kJ/kg). Comparing the activation energy (Ea) with the net isosteric heat of sorption for desorption isotherm (qst) (1,297.62) at 0.1 (kg water/kg dry matter), indicated that Ea was higher than qst suggesting that moisture molecules travel in liquid form in matooke slices. The total color difference (ΔE*) between the fresh and dry samples, was lowest for effect of thickness of 7 mm, followed by air velocity of 6 m/s, and then drying air temperature at 70˚C. The drying system controlled by set surface product temperature, reduced the drying time by 50% compared to that of a drying system controlled by set air drying temperature. The processing parameters did not have a significant effect on physicochemical and quality attributes, suggesting that any drying air temperature can be used in the initial stages of drying as long as the product temperature does not exceed gelatinization temperature of matooke (72˚C). The optimum processing parameters for single-layer drying of matooke are: thickness = 3 mm, air temperatures 70˚C, dew point temperature 18˚C and air velocity 6 m/s overflow mode. From practical point of view it is recommended that for commercial processing of matooke, to employ multi-layer drying of loading capacity equal or less than 7 kg/m², thickness 3 mm, air temperatures 70˚C, dew point temperature 18˚C and air velocity 6 m/s overflow mode.

Experimental and CFD study on low temperature drying of loose and compressed bulks

Die Trocknung ist eines der am häufigsten verwendeten Verfahren, um die Haltbarkeit von landwirtschaftlichen Gütern zu verlängern. Von den vielen gebräuchlichen Trocknungsarten ist die Konvektionstrocknung, die Luft als Energie- und Feuchteträger verwendet, weiterhin die wichtigste. Trotz ihrer Nachteile und ihres hohen spezifischen Energieverbrauchs sind Satztrockner für die Getreide-, Kräuter- und Heutrocknung noch weit verbreitet. Ferner werden Konvektionstrockner gemeinhin zur künstlichen Trocknung eingesetzt. Diese Arbeit ist Teil eines Forschungsprojekts, welches eine sorptionsgestützte solare Trocknung von landwirtschaftlichen Gütern untersucht. Bei dieser wird kühle feuchte Luft in Kontakt mit einer konzentrierten hygroskopischen Salzlösung gebracht. Während dieses Prozesses wird die Luft entfeuchtet und mit Hilfe der freigesetzten Verdampfungsenthalpie erwärmt. Die Anwendung dieses Verfahrens zur Trocknung landwirtschaftlicher Güter ist besonders interessant für Produkte, die bei niedrigen Temperaturen verarbeitet werden, um ihre Qualität nicht negativ zu beeinflussen. Bei allen energieintensiven Prozessen und vor allem bei der Verwendung von Solarenergie ist ein effizienter Energieverbrauch äußerst wichtig für den technischen und ökonomischen Erfolg. Eine ungleichmäßige Trocknung ist oftmals bei Satztrocknern zu beobachten, was die Energieeffizienz negativ beeinflusst. Aus diesem Grund lag im agrartechnischen Teil des Projekts der Schwerpunkt auf der Trocknung bei niedrigen Temperaturen und geringer Luftfeuchte, die der Sorptionsprozess liefert, sowie auf der Verbesserung der Luftverteilung und der Gleichmäßigkeit der Trocknung in lockeren und verdichteten Schüttungen. Es wurden Dünnschicht-Trocknungsexperminente für Blattsellerie bei unterschiedlichen Lufttemperaturen und unterschiedlicher relativer Luftfeuchte durchgeführt. Die Ergebnisse zeigen eindeutig, dass nicht nur die Lufttemperatur einen großen Einfluss auf die Trocknungsgeschwindigkeit hat, sondern auch die relative Luftfeuchte. Dies ist vor allem bei niedrigen Temperaturen, wie sie vom Sorptionssystem geliefert werden, der Fall. Um die Luftverteilung und Gleichmäßigkeit der Trocknung lockerer Schüttungen zu untersuchen, wurde ein Kistentrockner experimentell und in Strömungssimulationen getestet. Die Leistung des ursprünglichen Trockners wurde signifikant durch einfache Veränderungen des Designs verbessert. Diese stellten einen gleichmäßigeren Luftstrom durch das Produkt sicher. Die Trocknung von Heu-Rundballen stellt eine Herausforderung dar, da diese sehr stark verdichtet sind und die Dichte innerhalb eines Ballens stark schwankt. Strömungs- und Trocknungssimulationen so wie experimentelle Messungen zeigten, dass das Trocknerdesign einen großen Einfluss auf die Gleichmäßigkeit der Trocknung hat. Bei den einfachsten Trocknervarianten war die Verteilung auch bei optimal gepressten Ballen unzureichend, während komplexere Trockner eine gleichmäßigere Trocknung erzielten. Jedoch werden auch hier die Ergebnisse stark von der Verteilung der Dichte im Ballen beeinflusst, welche in der Praxis weiterhin nicht ideal ist. Abschließend wurde, um den Trocknungsfortschritt zu überwachen, eine Methodik getestet, bei der zur Messung des durchschnittlichen aktuellen Feuchtegehalts des Produktes psychrometrische Messungen und Messungen des Luftstroms in kurzen Abständen durchgeführt wurden. Die Menge des tatsächlich entfernten Wassers stimmte in den meisten Fällen gut mit der geschätzten Menge überein. Jedoch hängt der Erfolg dieser Methode stark von der Genauigkeit der Messfühler ab.

Simultaneous Drying and Separation of Composite Agricultural Material for Hay Processing

In composite agricultural materials such as grass, tee, medicinal plants; leaves and stems have a different drying time. By this behavior, after leaving the dryer, the stems may have greater moisture content than desired, while the leaves one minor, which can cause either the appearance of fungi or the collapse of the over-dried material. Taking into account that a lot of grass is dehydrated in forced air dryers, especially rotary drum dryers, this research was developed in order to establish conditions enabling to make a separation of the components during the drying process in order to provide a homogeneous product at the end. For this, a rotary dryer consisting of three concentric cylinders and a circular sieve aligned with the more internal cylinder was proposed; so that, once material enters into the dryer in the area of the inner cylinder, stems pass through sieve to the middle and then continue towards the external cylinder, while the leaves continue by the inner cylinder. For this project, a mixture of Ryegrass and White Clover was used. The characteristics of the components of a mixture were: Drying Rate in thin layer and in rotation, Bulk density, Projected Area, Terminal velocity, weight/Area Ratio, Flux through Rotary sieve. Three drying temperatures; 40°C, 60° C and 80° C, and three rotation speeds; 10 rpm, 20 rpm and 40 rpm were evaluated. It was found that the differences in drying time are the less at 80 °C when the dryer rotates at 40 rpm. Above this speed, the material adheres to the walls of the dryer or sieve and does not flow. According to the measurements of terminal velocity of stems and leaves of the components of the mixture, the speed of the air should be less than 1.5 m s-1 in the inner drum for the leaves and less than 4.5 m s-1 in middle and outer drums for stems, in such way that only the rotational movement of the dryer moves the material and achieves a greater residence time. In other hand, the best rotary sieve separation efficiencies were achieved when the material is dry, but the results are good in all the moisture contents. The best rotary speed of sieve is within the critical rotational speed, i.e. 20 rpm. However, the rotational speed of the dryer, including the sieve in line with the inner cylinder should be 10 rpm or less in order to achieve the greatest residence times of the material inside the dryer and the best agitation through the use of lifting flights. With a finite element analysis of a dryer prototype, using an air flow allowing speeds of air already stated, I was found that the best performance occurs when, through a cover, air enters the dryer front of the Middle cylinder and when the inner cylinder is formed in its entirety through a sieve. This way, air flows in almost equal amounts by both the middle and external cylinders, while part of the air in the Middle cylinder passes through the sieve towards the inner cylinder. With this, leaves do not adhere to the sieve and flow along drier, thanks to the rotating movement of the drums and the showering caused by the lifting flights. In these conditions, the differences in drying time are reduced to 60 minutes, but the residence time is higher for the stems than for leaves, therefore the components of the mixture of grass run out of the dryer with the same desired moisture content.