Nitrogen requirements of cassava in selected soils of Thailand

Cassava (Manihot esculenta) is one of the most important export crops in Thailand, yet the nitrogen requirement is unknown and not considered by growers and producers. Cassava requirements for N were determined in field experiments during a period of four years and four sites on the Satuk (Suk), Don Chedi (Dc), Pak Chong (Pc),and Ban Beung (BBg) soil series in Lopburi, Supanburi, Nakhon Ratchasima, and Chonburi sites, respectively. The fertilizer treatment structure comprised 0, 62.5, 125, 187.5, 250 and 312.5 kg N ha^(-1) as urea. At each site cassava was harvested at nine months and yield parameters and the minimum datasets were taken. The fertilizer rate which resulted in maximum yield ranged from 187.5 kg N ha^(-1) in Supanburi and Chonburi (fresh weight yield of 47,500 and 30,000 kg ha^(-1) respectively) to 250 kg N ha^(-1) in Lopburi and Nakhon Ratchasima (fresh weight yield of 64,100 and 46,700 kg ha^(-1) respectively). Yield appeared to decrease at the higher, 312 kg ha^(-1), at Supanburi and Lopburi, and 250 kg ha^(-1) (Chonburi) fertilizer N rates. Net revenue was 70.4 and 72.9 % higher than where no N was appliedLopburi and Nakhon Ratchasima sites. Net revenue at the Supanburi and Chonburi sites were 53.8 and 211.0 % higher than that where no N was applied. This study suggests that at all sites improved cassava production and net revenue could be obtained with the judicious application of higher quantities of N. The results provide needed guidance to nitrogen fertilization of the important industrial crop cassava in Thailand.

Cassava root peel as a replacement for maize in diets for growing pigs: effects on energy and nutrient digestibility, performance and carcass characteristics

Two experiments were conducted to evaluate cassava root peel (CRP) as diet component for fattening pigs. In the first experiment, ten male pigs were used to investigate the nutrient digestibility and the nutritive value of CRP as replacement for maize in the diet at 0 %, 30 %, 40 %, 50 % and 60 %, while supplementing free amino acids (fAA). During two experimental periods, faeces were quantitatively collected and analysed for chemical composition. In the second experiment, 40 pigs received the same diets as in Experiment 1, and daily feed intake and weekly weight changes were recorded. Four pigs per diet were slaughtered at 70 kg body weight to evaluate carcass traits. Digestibility of dry and organic matter, crude protein, acid detergent fibre and gross energy were depressed (p<0.05) at 60 % CRP; digestible energy content (MJ kg^(−1) DM) was 15.4 at 0 % CRP and 12.7 at 60 % CRP. In the second experiment, CRP inclusion had only a small impact on feed intake, weight gain and feed conversion ratio (p>0.05) as well as on the length of the small intestine and the Longissimus dorsi muscle area. The missing correlation of daily weight gain and feed-to-gain ratio up to a CRP inclusion of 40 % indicates that negative effects of CRP on pig growth can be avoided by respecting upper feeding limits. Hence, a combined use of CRP and fAA can reduce feeding costs for small-scale pig farmers in countries where this crop-by product is available in large amounts.

The diversity of postharvest losses in cassava value chains in selected developing countries

The extent of physical and economic postharvest losses at different stages of cassava value chains has been estimated in four countries that differ considerably in the way cassava is cultivated, processed and consumed and in the relationships and linkages among the value chain actors. Ghana incurs by far the highest losses because a high proportion of roots reach the consumers in the fresh form. Most losses occur at the last stage of the value chain. In Nigeria and Vietnam processors incur most of the losses while in Thailand most losses occur during harvesting. Poorer countries incur higher losses despite their capacity to absorb sub-standard products (therefore transforming part of the physical losses into economic losses) and less strict buyer standards. In monetary terms the impact of losses is particularly severe in Ghana and estimated at about half a billion US dollar per annum while in the other countries it is at the most about USD 50 million. This comparison shows that there are no “one-size-fits-all" solutions for addressing postharvest losses but rather these must be tailor-made to the specific characteristics of the different value chains.

Technical and scale efficiency of cassava production system in Delta State, Nigeria: an application of Two-Stage DEA approach

The present study examines the level of pure technical and scale efficiencies of cassava production system including its sub-processes (that is production and processing stages) of 278 cassava farmers/processors from three regions of Delta State, Nigeria by applying Two-Stage Data Envelopment Analysis (DEA) approach. Results reveal that pure technical efficiency (PTE) is significantly lower at the production stage 0.41 vs 0.55 for the processing stage, but scale efficiency (SE) is high at both stages (0.84 and 0.87), implying that productivity can be improved substantially by reallocation of resources and adjusting operation size. The socio-economic determinants exert differential impacts on PTE and SE at each stage. Overall, education, experience and main occupation as farmer significantly improve SE while subsistence pressure reduces it. Extension contact significantly improves SE at the processing stage but reduces PTE and SE overall. Inverse size-PTE and size-SE relationships exist in cassava production system. In other words, large/medium farms are technically and scale inefficient. Gender gap exists in performance. Male farmers are technically efficient at processing stage but scale inefficient overall. Farmers in northern region are technically efficient. Investments in education, extension services and infrastructure are suggested as policy options to improve the cassava sector in Nigeria.

The role of institutions as actors influencing Uganda’s cassava sector

We aim at mapping out a detailed framework that reveals the proportionate flow of cassava and its products along the value chain (VC). Furthermore, we aim at establishing the role of institutions and the linkages between institutions and other VC actors that influence the cassava VC in Uganda. We use both primary and secondary data obtained from four regions in Uganda. Results show that farmers, processors, transporters, traders, consumers and institutions are the major actors. There are four categories of institutions, viz, government, non-government, community based organisations and international agencies. Roles performed by institutions include: development and enforcement of policies, Research and Development (R&D), capacity building, and creation of market access linkages for cassava and its products. Findings reveal that there is no clear nexus and no coordination among farmers/producers, processors, traders, transporters and consumers. However, institutions are well coordinated and play various roles along the VC to influence the dynamics of actors. Policy-wise it is important to establish strong private-public partnerships to bridge the impaired linkages between the actors (farmers/producers, processors, traders, transporters, and consumers) and institutions. Strong partnerships are envisaged to reduce the associated transaction costs amongst the actors.

Exploring the potential of cassava in promoting agricultural growth in Nigeria

Cassava is one of the major food crops in Nigeria, with multiple uses from human consumption to industrial applications. This study explores the potential of cassava in Nigerian agriculture based on a review of cassava development policies; performs a trend analysis of the cultivation area, production, productivity, and real price of cassava and other competing crops for the period 1961–2013; identifies the sources of growth in production; and examines the production constraints at the local level based on a survey of 315 farmers/processors and 105 marketers from Delta State. The results revealed that several policies and programmes were implemented to develop the cassava sector with mixed outcomes. Although cassava productivity grew at 1.5% per annum (p.a.) during the post-structural adjustment programme period (1993–2013), its real price declined at a rate of 3.5% p.a. The effect of yield is the main source of growth in production, contributing 76.4% of the total growth followed by the area effect (28.2%). The cassava sector is constrained by inadequate market infrastructure, processing facilities, and lack of information and unstable prices at the local level. The widespread diffusion of improved tropical manioc selection technologies and investments in market and marketing infrastructure, processing technologies, irrigation/water provision and information dissemination are recommended to enhance the potential of the cassava sector to support agricultural growth in Nigeria.

Experimental and modeling studies of forced convection storage and drying systems for sweet potatoes

Sweet potato is an important strategic agricultural crop grown in many countries around the world. The roots and aerial vine components of the crop are used for both human consumption and, to some extent as a cheap source of animal feed. In spite of its economic value and growing contribution to health and nutrition, harvested sweet potato roots and aerial vine components has limited shelf-life and is easily susceptible to post-harvest losses. Although post-harvest losses of both sweet potato roots and aerial vine components is significant, there is no information available that will support the design and development of appropriate storage and preservation systems. In this context, the present study was initiated to improve scientific knowledge about sweet potato post-harvest handling. Additionally, the study also seeks to develop a PV ventilated mud storehouse for storage of sweet potato roots under tropical conditions. In study one, airflow resistance of sweet potato aerial vine components was investigated. The influence of different operating parameters such as airflow rate, moisture content and bulk depth at different levels on airflow resistance was analyzed. All the operating parameters were observed to have significant (P < 0.01) effect on airflow resistance. Prediction models were developed and were found to adequately describe the experimental pressure drop data. In study two, the resistance of airflow through unwashed and clean sweet potato roots was investigated. The effect of sweet potato roots shape factor, surface roughness, orientation to airflow, and presence of soil fraction on airflow resistance was also assessed. The pressure drop through unwashed and clean sweet potato roots was observed to increase with higher airflow, bed depth, root grade composition, and presence of soil fraction. The physical properties of the roots were incorporated into a modified Ergun model and compared with a modified Shedd’s model. The modified Ergun model provided the best fit to the experimental data when compared with the modified Shedd’s model. In study three, the effect of sweet potato root size (medium and large), different air velocity and temperature on the cooling/or heating rate and time of individual sweet potato roots were investigated. Also, a simulation model which is based on the fundamental solution of the transient equations was proposed for estimating the cooling and heating time at the centre of sweet potato roots. The results showed that increasing air velocity during cooling and heating significantly (P < 0.05) affects the cooling and heating times. Furthermore, the cooling and heating times were significantly different (P < 0.05) among medium and large size sweet potato roots. Comparison of the simulation results with experimental data confirmed that the transient simulation model can be used to accurately estimate the cooling and heating times of whole sweet potato roots under forced convection conditions. In study four, the performance of charcoal evaporative cooling pad configurations for integration into sweet potato roots storage systems was investigated. The experiments were carried out at different levels of air velocity, water flow rates, and three pad configurations: single layer pad (SLP), double layers pad (DLP) and triple layers pad (TLP) made out of small and large size charcoal particles. The results showed that higher air velocity has tremendous effect on pressure drop. Increasing the water flow rate above the range tested had no practical benefits in terms of cooling. It was observed that DLP and TLD configurations with larger wet surface area for both types of pads provided high cooling efficiencies. In study five, CFD technique in the ANSYS Fluent software was used to simulate airflow distribution in a low-cost mud storehouse. By theoretically investigating different geometries of air inlet, plenum chamber, and outlet as well as its placement using ANSYS Fluent software, an acceptable geometry with uniform air distribution was selected and constructed. Experimental measurements validated the selected design. In study six, the performance of the developed PV ventilated system was investigated. Field measurements showed satisfactory results of the directly coupled PV ventilated system. Furthermore, the option of integrating a low-cost evaporative cooling system into the mud storage structure was also investigated. The results showed a reduction of ambient temperature inside the mud storehouse while relative humidity was enhanced. The ability of the developed storage system to provide and maintain airflow, temperature and relative humidity which are the key parameters for shelf-life extension of sweet potato roots highlight its ability to reduce post-harvest losses at the farmer level, particularly under tropical climate conditions.

Modelling of global crop production and resulting N2O emissions

Landwirtschaft spielt eine zentrale Rolle im Erdsystem. Sie trägt durch die Emission von CO2, CH4 und N2O zum Treibhauseffekt bei, kann Bodendegradation und Eutrophierung verursachen, regionale Wasserkreisläufe verändern und wird außerdem stark vom Klimawandel betroffen sein. Da all diese Prozesse durch die zugrunde liegenden Nährstoff- und Wasserflüsse eng miteinander verknüpft sind, sollten sie in einem konsistenten Modellansatz betrachtet werden. Dennoch haben Datenmangel und ungenügendes Prozessverständnis dies bis vor kurzem auf der globalen Skala verhindert. In dieser Arbeit wird die erste Version eines solchen konsistenten globalen Modellansatzes präsentiert, wobei der Schwerpunkt auf der Simulation landwirtschaftlicher Erträge und den resultierenden N2O-Emissionen liegt. Der Grund für diese Schwerpunktsetzung liegt darin, dass die korrekte Abbildung des Pflanzenwachstums eine essentielle Voraussetzung für die Simulation aller anderen Prozesse ist. Des weiteren sind aktuelle und potentielle landwirtschaftliche Erträge wichtige treibende Kräfte für Landnutzungsänderungen und werden stark vom Klimawandel betroffen sein. Den zweiten Schwerpunkt bildet die Abschätzung landwirtschaftlicher N2O-Emissionen, da bislang kein prozessbasiertes N2O-Modell auf der globalen Skala eingesetzt wurde. Als Grundlage für die globale Modellierung wurde das bestehende Agrarökosystemmodell Daycent gewählt. Neben der Schaffung der Simulationsumgebung wurden zunächst die benötigten globalen Datensätze für Bodenparameter, Klima und landwirtschaftliche Bewirtschaftung zusammengestellt. Da für Pflanzzeitpunkte bislang keine globale Datenbasis zur Verfügung steht, und diese sich mit dem Klimawandel ändern werden, wurde eine Routine zur Berechnung von Pflanzzeitpunkten entwickelt. Die Ergebnisse zeigen eine gute Übereinstimmung mit Anbaukalendern der FAO, die für einige Feldfrüchte und Länder verfügbar sind. Danach wurde das Daycent-Modell für die Ertragsberechnung von Weizen, Reis, Mais, Soja, Hirse, Hülsenfrüchten, Kartoffel, Cassava und Baumwolle parametrisiert und kalibriert. Die Simulationsergebnisse zeigen, dass Daycent die wichtigsten Klima-, Boden- und Bewirtschaftungseffekte auf die Ertragsbildung korrekt abbildet. Berechnete Länderdurchschnitte stimmen gut mit Daten der FAO überein (R2 = 0.66 für Weizen, Reis und Mais; R2 = 0.32 für Soja), und räumliche Ertragsmuster entsprechen weitgehend der beobachteten Verteilung von Feldfrüchten und subnationalen Statistiken. Vor der Modellierung landwirtschaftlicher N2O-Emissionen mit dem Daycent-Modell stand eine statistische Analyse von N2O-und NO-Emissionsmessungen aus natürlichen und landwirtschaftlichen Ökosystemen. Die als signifikant identifizierten Parameter für N2O (Düngemenge, Bodenkohlenstoffgehalt, Boden-pH, Textur, Feldfrucht, Düngersorte) und NO (Düngemenge, Bodenstickstoffgehalt, Klima) entsprechen weitgehend den Ergebnissen einer früheren Analyse. Für Emissionen aus Böden unter natürlicher Vegetation, für die es bislang keine solche statistische Untersuchung gab, haben Bodenkohlenstoffgehalt, Boden-pH, Lagerungsdichte, Drainierung und Vegetationstyp einen signifikanten Einfluss auf die N2O-Emissionen, während NO-Emissionen signifikant von Bodenkohlenstoffgehalt und Vegetationstyp abhängen. Basierend auf den daraus entwickelten statistischen Modellen betragen die globalen Emissionen aus Ackerböden 3.3 Tg N/y für N2O, und 1.4 Tg N/y für NO. Solche statistischen Modelle sind nützlich, um Abschätzungen und Unsicherheitsbereiche von N2O- und NO-Emissionen basierend auf einer Vielzahl von Messungen zu berechnen. Die Dynamik des Bodenstickstoffs, insbesondere beeinflusst durch Pflanzenwachstum, Klimawandel und Landnutzungsänderung, kann allerdings nur durch die Anwendung von prozessorientierten Modellen berücksichtigt werden. Zur Modellierung von N2O-Emissionen mit dem Daycent-Modell wurde zunächst dessen Spurengasmodul durch eine detailliertere Berechnung von Nitrifikation und Denitrifikation und die Berücksichtigung von Frost-Auftau-Emissionen weiterentwickelt. Diese überarbeitete Modellversion wurde dann an N2O-Emissionsmessungen unter verschiedenen Klimaten und Feldfrüchten getestet. Sowohl die Dynamik als auch die Gesamtsummen der N2O-Emissionen werden befriedigend abgebildet, wobei die Modelleffizienz für monatliche Mittelwerte zwischen 0.1 und 0.66 für die meisten Standorte liegt. Basierend auf der überarbeiteten Modellversion wurden die N2O-Emissionen für die zuvor parametrisierten Feldfrüchte berechnet. Emissionsraten und feldfruchtspezifische Unterschiede stimmen weitgehend mit Literaturangaben überein. Düngemittelinduzierte Emissionen, die momentan vom IPCC mit 1.25 +/- 1% der eingesetzten Düngemenge abgeschätzt werden, reichen von 0.77% (Reis) bis 2.76% (Mais). Die Summe der berechneten Emissionen aus landwirtschaftlichen Böden beträgt für die Mitte der 1990er Jahre 2.1 Tg N2O-N/y, was mit den Abschätzungen aus anderen Studien übereinstimmt.

Effects of activated charcoal and quebracho tannins on the turnover of goat manure in irrigated organic agriculture of the subtropics

Agriculture in semi-arid and arid regions is constantly gaining importance for the security of the nutrition of humankind because of the rapid population growth. At the same time, especially these regions are more and more endangered by soil degradation, limited resources and extreme climatic conditions. One way to retain soil fertility under these conditions in the long run is to increase the soil organic matter. Thus, a two-year field experiment was conducted to test the efficiency of activated charcoal and quebracho tannin extract as stabilizers of soil organic matter on a sandy soil low in nutrients in Northern Oman. Both activated charcoal and quebracho tannin extract were either fed to goats and after defecation applied to the soil or directly applied to the soil in combination with dried goat manure. Regardless of the application method, both additives reduced decomposition of soil-applied organic matter and thus stabilized and increased soil organic carbon. The nutrient release from goat manure was altered by the application of activated charcoal and quebracho tannin extract as well, however, nutrient release was not always slowed down. While activated charcoal fed to goats, was more effective in stabilising soil organic matter and in reducing nutrient release than mixing it, for quebracho tannin extract the opposite was the case. Moreover, the efficiency of the additives was influenced by the cultivated crop (sweet corn and radish), leading to unexplained interactions. The reduced nutrient release caused by the stabilization of the organic matter might be the reason for the reduced yields for sweet corn caused by the application of manure amended with activated charcoal and quebracho tannin extract. Radish, on the other hand, was only inhibited by the presence of quebracho tannin extract but not by activated charcoal. This might be caused by a possible allelopathic effect of tannins on crops. To understand the mechanisms behind the changes in manure, in the soil, in the mineralisation and the plant development and to resolve detrimental effects, further research as recommended in this dissertation is necessary. Particularly in developing countries poor in resources and capital, feeding charcoal or tannins to animals and using their faeces as manure may be promising to increase soil fertility, sequester carbon and reduce nutrient losses, when yield reductions can be resolved.

Improving cropping systems of semi-arid south-western Madagascar under multiple ecological and socio-economic constraints

Das Mahafaly Plateau im südwestlichen Madagaskar ist gekennzeichnet durch raue klimatische Bedingungen, vor allem regelmäßige Dürren und Trockenperioden, geringe Infrastruktur, steigende Unsicherheit, hohe Analphabetenrate und regelmäßige Zerstörung der Ernte durch Heuschreckenplagen. Da 97% der Bevölkerung von der Landwirtschaft abhängen, ist eine Steigerung der Produktivität von Anbausystemen die Grundlage für eine Verbesserung der Lebensbedingungen und Ernährungssicherheit in der Mahafaly Region. Da wenig über die Produktivität von traditionellen extensiven und neu eingeführten Anbaumethoden in diesem Gebiet bekannt ist, waren die Zielsetzungen der vorliegenden Arbeit, die limitierenden Faktoren und vielversprechende alternative Anbaumethoden zu identifizieren und diese unter Feldbedingungen zu testen. Wir untersuchten die Auswirkungen von lokalem Viehmist und Holzkohle auf die Erträge von Maniok, der Hauptanbaufrucht der Region, sowie die Beiträge von weiteren Faktoren, die im Untersuchungsgebiet ertragslimitierend sind. Darüber hinaus wurde in der Küstenregion das Potenzial für bewässerten Gemüseanbau mit Mist und Holzkohle untersucht, um zu einer Diversifizierung von Einkommen und Ernährung beizutragen. Ein weiterer Schwerpunkt dieser Arbeit war die Schätzung von Taubildung und deren Beitrag in der Jahreswasserbilanz durch Testen eines neu entworfenen Taumessgerätes. Maniok wurde über drei Jahre und in drei Versuchsfeldern in zwei Dörfern auf dem Plateau angebaut, mit applizierten Zeburindermistraten von 5 und 10 t ha-1, Holzkohleraten von 0,5 und 2 t ha-1 und Maniokpflanzdichten von 4500 Pflanzen ha-1. Maniokknollenerträge auf Kontrollflächen erreichten 1 bis 1,8 t Trockenmasse (TM) ha-1. Mist führte zu einer Knollenertragssteigerung um 30 - 40% nach drei Jahren in einem kontinuierlich bewirtschafteten Feld mit geringer Bodenfruchtbarkeit, hatte aber keinen Effekt auf den anderen Versuchsfeldern. Holzkohle hatte keinen Einfluss auf Erträge über den gesamten Testzeitraum, während die Infektion mit Cassava-Mosaikvirus zu Ertragseinbußen um bis zu 30% führte. Pflanzenbestände wurden felder-und jahresübergreifend um 4-54% des vollen Bestandes reduziert, was vermutlich auf das Auftreten von Trockenperioden und geringe Vitalität von Pflanzmaterial zurückzuführen ist. Karotten (Daucus carota L. var. Nantaise) und Zwiebeln (Allium cepa L. var. Red Créole) wurden über zwei Trockenzeiten mit lokal erhältlichem Saatgut angebaut. Wir testeten die Auswirkungen von lokalem Rindermist mit einer Rate von 40 t ha-1, Holzkohle mit einer Rate von 10 t ha-1, sowie Beschattung auf die Gemüseernteerträge. Lokale Bewässerungswasser hatte einen Salzgehalt von 7,65 mS cm-1. Karotten- und Zwiebelerträge über Behandlungen und Jahre erreichten 0,24 bis 2,56 t TM ha-1 beziehungsweise 0,30 bis 4,07 DM t ha-1. Mist und Holzkohle hatten keinen Einfluss auf die Erträge beider Kulturen. Beschattung verringerte Karottenerträge um 33% im ersten Jahr, während sich die Erträge im zweiten Jahr um 65% erhöhten. Zwiebelerträge wurden unter Beschattung um 148% und 208% im ersten und zweiten Jahr erhöht. Salines Bewässerungswasser sowie Qualität des lokal verfügbaren Saatgutes reduzierten die Keimungsraten deutlich. Taubildung im Küstendorf Efoetsy betrug 58,4 mm und repräsentierte damit 19% der Niederschlagsmenge innerhalb des gesamten Beobachtungszeitraum von 18 Monaten. Dies weist darauf hin, dass Tau in der Tat einen wichtigen Beitrag zur jährlichen Wasserbilanz darstellt. Tageshöchstwerte erreichten 0,48 mm. Die getestete Tauwaage-Vorrichtung war in der Lage, die nächtliche Taubildung auf der metallischen Kondensationsplatte zuverlässig zu bestimmen. Im abschließenden Kapitel werden die limitierenden Faktoren für eine nachhaltige Intensivierung der Landwirtschaft in der Untersuchungsregion diskutiert.