The role of Ken&Barbie in JAK/STAT signalling during development of Drosophila melanogaster

Cell-cell interactions during embryonic development are crucial in the co-ordination of growth, differentiation and maintenance of many different cell types. To achieve this co-ordination each cell must properly translate signals received from neighbouring cells, into spatially and temporally appropriate developmental responses. A surprisingly limited number of signal pathways are responsible for the differentiation of enormous variety of cell types. As a result, pathways are frequently 'reused' during development. Thus, in mammals the JAK/STAT pathway is required during early embryogenesis, mammary gland formation, hematopoiesis and, finally, plays a pivotal role in immune response. In the canonical way, the JAK/STAT pathway is represented by a transmembrane receptor associated with a Janus kinase (JAK), which upon stimulation by an extra-cellular ligand, phosphorylates itself, the receptor and, finally, the signal transducer and activator of transcription (STAT) molecules. Phosphorylated STATs dimerise and translocate to the nucleus where they activate transcription of target genes. The JAK/STAT pathway has been conserved throughout evolution, and all known components are present in the genome of Drosophila melanogaster. Besides hematopoietic and immunity functions, the pathway is also required during development for processes including embryonic segmentation, tracheal morphogenesis, posterior spiracle formation etc. This study describes Drosophila Ken&Barbie (Ken) as a selective regulator of JAK/STAT signalling. ken mutations identified in a screen for modulators of an eye overgrowth phenotype, caused by over-expression of the pathway ligand unpaired, also interact genetically with the pathway receptor domeless (dome) and the transcription factor stat92E. Over-expression of Ken can phenocopy developmental defects known to be caused by the loss of JAK/STAT signalling. These genetic interactions suggest that Ken may function as a negative regulator of the pathway. Ken has C-terminal Zn-finger domain, presumably for DNA binding, and N-terminal BTB/POZ domain, often found in transcriptional repressors. Using EGFP-fused construct expressed in vivo revealed nuclear accumulation of Ken. Therefore, it is proposed that Ken may act as a suppresser of STAT92E target genes. An in vitro assay, termed SELEX, determined that Ken specifically binds to a DNA sequence, with the essential for DNA recognition core overlapping that of STAT92E. This interesting observation suggests that not all STAT92E sites may also allow Ken binding. Strikingly, when effects of ectopic Ken on the expression of putative JAK/STAT pathway target genes were examined, only a subset of the genes tested, namely vvl, trh and kni, were down-regulated by Ken, whereas some others, such as eve and fj, appeared to be unresponsive. Further analysis of vvl, one of the genes susceptible to ectopic Ken, was undertaken. In the developing hindgut, expression of vvl is JAK/STAT pathway dependent, but remains repressed in the posterior spiracles, despite the stimulation of STAT92E by Upd in their primordia. Importantly, ken is also expressed in the developing posterior spiracles. Strikingly, up-regulation of vvl is observed in these tissues in ken mutant embryos. These imply that while ectopic Ken is sufficient to repress the expression of vvl in the hindgut, endogenous Ken is also necessary to prevent its activation in the posterior spiracles. It is therefore conceivable that ectopic vvl expression in the posterior spiracles of the ken mutants may be the result of de-repression of endogenous STAT92E activity. Another consequence of these observations is a fine balance that must exist between STAT92E and Ken activities. Apparently, endogenous level of Ken is sufficient to repress vvl, but not other, as yet unidentified, JAK/STAT pathway targets, whose presumable activation by STAT92E is required for posterior spiracle development as the embryos mutant for dome, the receptor of the pathway, show severe spiracle defects. These defects are also observed in the embryos mis-expressing Ken. Though it is possible that the posterior spiracle phenotype caused by higher levels of Ken results from a JAK/STAT pathway independent activity, it seems to be more likely that Ken acts in a dosage dependent manner, and extra Ken is able to further antagonise JAK/STAT pathway target genes. While STAT92E binding sites required for target gene expression have been poorly characterised, the existence of genome data allows the prediction of candidate STAT92E sites present in target genes promoters to be attempted. When a 6kb region containing the putative regulatory domains flanking the vvl locus are examined, only a single potential STAT92E binding site located 825bp upstream of the translational start can be detected. Strikingly, this site also includes a perfect Ken binding sequence. Such an in silico observation, though consistent with both Ken DNA binding assay in vitro and regulation of STAT92E target genes in vivo, however, requires further analysis. The JAK/STAT pathway is implicated in a variety of processes during embryonic and larval development as well as in imago. In each case, stimulation of the same transcription factor results in different developmental outcomes. While many potential mechanisms have been proposed and demonstrated to explain such pleiotropy, the present study indicates that Ken may represent another mechanism, with which signal transduction pathways are controlled. Ken selectively down-regulates a subset of potential target genes and so modifies the transcriptional profile generated by activated STAT92E - a mechanism, which may be partially responsible for differences in the morphogenetic processes elicited by JAK/STAT signalling during development.

Molecular mechanisms controlling the precision of chemokine guided cell migration

By the end of the first day of embryonic development, zebrafish primordial germ cells (PGCs) arrive at the site where the gonad develops. In our study we investigated the mechanisms controlling the precision of primordial germ cell arrival at their target. We found that in contrast with our expectations which were based on findings in Drosophila and mouse, the endoderm does not constitute a preferred migration substrate for the PGCs. Rather, endoderm derivatives are important for later stages of organogenesis keeping the PGC clusters separated. It would be interesting to investigate the precise mechanism by which endoderm controls germ cell position in the gonad. In their migration towards the gonad, zebrafish germ cells follow the gradient of chemokine SDF-1a, which they detect using the receptor CXCR4b that is expressed on their membrane. Here we show that the C-terminal region of CXCR4b is responsible for down-regulation of receptor activity as well as for receptor internalization. We demonstrate that receptor molecules unable to internalize are less potent in guiding germ cells to the site where the gonad develops, thereby implicating chemokine receptor internalization in facilitating precision of migration during chemotaxis in vivo. We demonstrate that while CXCR4b activity positively regulates the duration of the active migration phases, the down-regulation of CXCR4b signalling by internalization limits the duration of this phase. This way, receptor signalling contributes to the persistence of germ cell migration, whereas receptor down-regulation enables the cells to stop and correct their migration path close to the target where germ cells encounter the highest chemokine signal. Chemokine receptors are involved in directing cell migration in different processes such as lymphocyte trafficking, cancer and in the development of the vascular system. The C-terminal domain of many chemokine receptors was shown to be essential for controlling receptor signalling and internalization. It would therefore be important to determine whether the role for receptor internalization in vivo as described here (allowing periodical corrections to the migration route) and the mechanisms involved (reducing the level of signalling) apply for those other events, too.

Charakterisierung des Ubiquitin-ähnlichen Proteins Urm1 in Saccharomyces cerevisiae

Das ursprünglich in S. cerevisiae identifizierte Urm1 stellt aufgrund seiner dualen Funktionsweise ein besonderes UBL dar. In einem Prozess, der als Urmylierung bezeichnet wird, kann es ähnlich dem Ubiquitin kovalent mit anderen Proteinen verknüpft werden. Zusätzlich fungiert es aber auch als Schwefelträger, der an der Thiolierung des wobble-Uridins bestimmter cytoplasmatischer tRNAs beteiligt ist. Während neuere Untersuchungen zeigen, dass die Urm1-abhängige tRNA-Thiolierung zu einer effizienten Translation in Eukaryoten beiträgt, ist die Bedeutung der Urmylierung immer noch unklar. Um die Funktion der Urm1-vermittelten Proteinmodifikation weiter aufzuklären, wurde die Urmylierung des Peroxiredoxins Ahp1 im Rahmen dieser Arbeit näher untersucht. Es konnte demonstriert werden, dass Ahp1 nicht nur als Monomer, sondern auch als Dimer urmyliert vorliegt. Dies deutet darauf hin, dass die Urmylierung mit dem peroxidatischen Zyklus von Ahp1 verknüpft ist. Diese Annahme konnte durch die Untersuchung der Modifikation verschiedener ahp1-Punktmutanten bestätigt werden. Hierbei ließ sich ebenfalls zeigen, dass das Peroxiredoxin wahrscheinlich auch an alternativen Lysinresten urmyliert werden kann. Trotzdem bleibt unklar, inwiefern die Funktionalität von Ahp1 durch die Urm1-Konjugation beeinträchtigt wird. So konnte ein Einfluss der Urmylierung auf die Ahp1-vermittelte Entgiftung des Alkylhydroperoxids t-BOOH nicht festgestellt werden. Ein weiterer Schwerpunkt dieser Arbeit war die Untersuchung einer möglichen mechanistischen Verknüpfung beider Urm1-Funktionen. Es ließ sich zeigen, dass nicht nur Schwefelmangel, sondern auch ein Verlust der Schwefeltransferase Tum1 zu einer drastischen Reduktion der Urm1-Konjugation führt. Demnach wird die Urmylierung wahrscheinlich über denselben Schwefeltransferweg vermittelt, der ebenfalls zur tRNA-Thiolierung beiträgt. Trotzdem ist der Schwefeltransfer, der zur Urm1-Aktivierung führt, womöglich komplexer als bisher angenommen. Wurden die vermuteten katalytischen Cysteine des Urm1-Aktivatorproteins Uba4 mutiert oder dessen C-terminale RHD entfernt, waren eine gehemmte Urmylierung und tRNA-Thiolierung weiterhin nachweisbar. Somit scheint ein Schwefeltransfer auf Urm1 auch ohne direkte Beteiligung von Uba4 möglich zu sein. In dieser Arbeit ließ sich außerdem zeigen, dass Urm1 in Hefe durch sein humanes Homolog funktional ersetzt werden kann. Dies ist ein Hinweis dafür, dass der Urm1-Weg in allen Eukaryoten gleich funktioniert und konserviert ist. Darüber hinaus scheint für die Urmylierung auch eine Konservierung der Substratspezifität gegeben zu sein. Der Nachweis einer Uba4-Urmylierung in Hefe könnte durchaus darauf hindeuten.