Systematics and evolution of the genus Deuterocohnia Mez (Bromeliaceae)

The present study investigates the systematics and evolution of the Neotropical genus Deuterocohnia Mez (Bromeliaceae). It provides a comprehensive taxonomic revision as well as phylogenetic analyses based on chloroplast and nuclear DNA sequences and presents a hypothesis on the evolution of the genus. A broad morphological, anatomical, biogeographical and ecological overview of the genus is given in the first part of the study. For morphological character assessment more than 700 herbarium specimens from 39 herbaria as well as living plant material in the field and in the living collections of botanical gardens were carefully examined. The arid habitats, in which the species of Deuterocohnia grow, are reflected by the morphological and anatomical characters of the species. Important characters for species delimitation were identified, like the length of the inflorescence, the branching order, the density of flowers on partial inflorescences, the relation of the length of the primary bracts to that of the partial inflorescence, the sizes of floral bracts, sepals and petals, flower colour, the presence or absence of a pedicel, the curvature of the stamina and the petals during anthesis. After scrutinizing the nomenclatural history of the taxa belonging to Deuterocohnia – including the 1992 syonymized genus Abromeitiella – 17 species, 4 subspecies and 4 varieties are accepted in the present revision. Taxonomic changes were made in the following cases: (I) New combinations: A. abstrusa (A. Cast.) N. Schütz is re-established – as defined by Castellanos (1931) – and transfered to D. abstrusa; D. brevifolia (Griseb.) M.A. Spencer & L.B. Sm. includes accessions of the former D. lorentziana (Mez) M.A. Spencer & L.B. Sm., which are not assigned to D. abstrusa; D. bracteosa W. Till is synonymized to D. strobilifera Mez; D. meziana Kuntze ex Mez var. carmineo-viridiflora Rauh is classified as a subspecies of D. meziana (ssp. carmineo-viridiflora (Rauh) N. Schütz); D. pedicellata W. Till is classified as a subspecies of D. meziana (ssp. pedicellata (W. Till) N. Schütz); D. scapigera (Rauh & L. Hrom.) M.A. Spencer & L.B. Sm ssp. sanctae-crucis R. Vásquez & Ibisch is classified as a species (D. sanctae-crucis (R. Vásquez & Ibisch) N. Schütz); (II) New taxa: a new subspecies of D. meziana Kuntze ex Mez is established; a new variety of D. scapigera is established; (the new taxa will be validly published elsewhere); (III) New type: an epitype for D. longipetala was chosen. All other species were kept according to Spencer and Smith (1992) or – in the case of more recently described species – according to the protologue. Beside the nomenclatural notes and the detailed descriptions, information on distribution, habitat and ecology, etymology and taxonomic delimitation is provided for the genus and for each of its species. An key was constructed for the identification of currently accepted species, subspecies and varieties. The key is based on easily detectable morphological characters. The former synonymization of the genus Abromeitiella into Deuterocohnia (Spencer and Smith 1992) is re-evalutated in the present study. Morphological as well as molecular investigations revealed Deuterocohnia incl. Abromeitiella as being monophyletic, with some indications that a monophyletic Abromeitiella lineage arose from within Deuterocohnia. Thus the union of both genera is confirmed. The second part of the present thesis describes and discusses the molecular phylogenies and networks. Molecular analyses of three chloroplast intergenic spacers (rpl32-trnL, rps16-trnK, trnS-ycf3) were conducted with a sample set of 119 taxa. This set included 103 Deuterocohnia accessions from all 17 described species of the genus and 16 outgroup taxa from the remainder of Pitcairnioideae s.str. (Dyckia (8 sp.), Encholirium (2 sp.), Fosterella (4 sp.) and Pitcairnia (2 sp.)). With its high sampling density, the present investigation by far represents the most comprehensive molecular study of Deuterocohnia up till now. All data sets were analyzed separately as well as in combination, and various optimality criteria for phylogenetic tree construction were applied (Maximum Parsimony, Maximum Likelihood, Bayesian inferences and the distance method Neighbour Joining). Congruent topologies were generally obtained with different algorithms and optimality criteria, but individual clades received different degrees of statistical support in some analyses. The rps16-trnK locus was the most informative among the three spacer regions examined. The results of the chloroplast DNA analyses revealed a highly supported paraphyly of Deuterocohnia. Thus, the cpDNA trees divide the genus into two subclades (A and B), of which Deuterocohnia subclade B is sister to the included Dyckia and Encholirium accessions, and both together are sister to Deuterocohnia subclade A. To further examine the relationship between Deuterocohnia and Dyckia/Encholirium at the generic level, two nuclear low copy markers (PRK exon2-5 and PHYC exon1) were analysed with a reduced taxon set. This set included 22 Deuterocohnia accessions (including members of both cpDNA subclades), 2 Dyckia, 2 Encholirium and 2 Fosterella species. Phylogenetic trees were constructed as described above, and for comparison the same reduced taxon set was also analysed at the three cpDNA data loci. In contrast to the cpDNA results, the nuclear DNA data strongly supported the monophyly of Deuterocohnia, which takes a sister position to a clade of Dyckia and Encholirium samples. As morphology as well as nuclear DNA data generated in the present study and in a former AFLP analysis (Horres 2003) all corroborate the monophyly of Deuterocohnia, the apparent paraphyly displayed in cpDNA analyses is interpreted to be the consequence of a chloroplast capture event. This involves the introgression of the chloroplast genome from the common ancestor of the Dyckia/ Encholirium lineage into the ancestor of Deuterocohnia subclade B species. The chloroplast haplotypes are not species-specific in Deuterocohnia. Thus, one haplotype was sometimes shared by several species, where the same species may harbour different haplotypes. The arrangement of haplotypes followed geographical patterns rather than taxonomic boundaries, which may indicate some residual gene flow among populations from different Deuteroccohnia species. Phenotypic species coherence on the background of ongoing gene flow may then be maintained by sets of co-adapted alleles, as was suggested by the porous genome concept (Wu 2001, Palma-Silva et al. 2011). The results of the present study suggest the following scenario for the evolution of Deuterocohnia and its species. Deuterocohnia longipetala may be envisaged as a representative of the ancestral state within the genus. This is supported by (1) the wide distribution of this species; (2) the overlap in distribution area with species of Dyckia; (3) the laxly flowered inflorescences, which are also typical for Dyckia; (4) the yellow petals with a greenish tip, present in most other Deuterocohnia species. The following six extant lineages within Deuterocohnia might have independently been derived from this ancestral state with a few changes each: (I) D. meziana, D. brevispicata and D. seramisiana (Bolivia, lowland to montane areas, mostly reddish-greenish coloured, very laxly to very densely flowered); (II) D. strobilifera (Bolivia, high Andean mountains, yellow flowers, densely flowered); (III) D. glandulosa (Bolivia, montane areas, yellow-greenish flowers, densely flowered); (IV) D. haumanii, D. schreiteri, D. digitata, and D. chrysantha (Argentina, Chile, E Andean mountains and Atacama desert, yellow-greenish flowers, densely flowered); (V) D. recurvipetala (Argentina, foothills of the Andes, recurved yellow flowers, laxly flowered); (VI) D. gableana, D. scapigera, D. sanctae-crucis, D. abstrusa, D. brevifolia, D. lotteae (former Abromeitiella species, Bolivia, Argentina, higher Andean mountains, greenish-yellow flowers, inflorescence usually simple). Originating from the lower montane Andean regions, at least four lineages of the genus (I, II, IV, VI) adapted in part to higher altitudes by developing densely flowered partial inflorescences, shorter flowers and – in at least three lineages (II, IV, VI) – smaller rosettes, whereas species spreading into the lowlands (I, V) developed larger plants, laxly flowered, amply branched inflorescences and in part larger flowers (I).

The role of Ken&Barbie in JAK/STAT signalling during development of Drosophila melanogaster

Cell-cell interactions during embryonic development are crucial in the co-ordination of growth, differentiation and maintenance of many different cell types. To achieve this co-ordination each cell must properly translate signals received from neighbouring cells, into spatially and temporally appropriate developmental responses. A surprisingly limited number of signal pathways are responsible for the differentiation of enormous variety of cell types. As a result, pathways are frequently 'reused' during development. Thus, in mammals the JAK/STAT pathway is required during early embryogenesis, mammary gland formation, hematopoiesis and, finally, plays a pivotal role in immune response. In the canonical way, the JAK/STAT pathway is represented by a transmembrane receptor associated with a Janus kinase (JAK), which upon stimulation by an extra-cellular ligand, phosphorylates itself, the receptor and, finally, the signal transducer and activator of transcription (STAT) molecules. Phosphorylated STATs dimerise and translocate to the nucleus where they activate transcription of target genes. The JAK/STAT pathway has been conserved throughout evolution, and all known components are present in the genome of Drosophila melanogaster. Besides hematopoietic and immunity functions, the pathway is also required during development for processes including embryonic segmentation, tracheal morphogenesis, posterior spiracle formation etc. This study describes Drosophila Ken&Barbie (Ken) as a selective regulator of JAK/STAT signalling. ken mutations identified in a screen for modulators of an eye overgrowth phenotype, caused by over-expression of the pathway ligand unpaired, also interact genetically with the pathway receptor domeless (dome) and the transcription factor stat92E. Over-expression of Ken can phenocopy developmental defects known to be caused by the loss of JAK/STAT signalling. These genetic interactions suggest that Ken may function as a negative regulator of the pathway. Ken has C-terminal Zn-finger domain, presumably for DNA binding, and N-terminal BTB/POZ domain, often found in transcriptional repressors. Using EGFP-fused construct expressed in vivo revealed nuclear accumulation of Ken. Therefore, it is proposed that Ken may act as a suppresser of STAT92E target genes. An in vitro assay, termed SELEX, determined that Ken specifically binds to a DNA sequence, with the essential for DNA recognition core overlapping that of STAT92E. This interesting observation suggests that not all STAT92E sites may also allow Ken binding. Strikingly, when effects of ectopic Ken on the expression of putative JAK/STAT pathway target genes were examined, only a subset of the genes tested, namely vvl, trh and kni, were down-regulated by Ken, whereas some others, such as eve and fj, appeared to be unresponsive. Further analysis of vvl, one of the genes susceptible to ectopic Ken, was undertaken. In the developing hindgut, expression of vvl is JAK/STAT pathway dependent, but remains repressed in the posterior spiracles, despite the stimulation of STAT92E by Upd in their primordia. Importantly, ken is also expressed in the developing posterior spiracles. Strikingly, up-regulation of vvl is observed in these tissues in ken mutant embryos. These imply that while ectopic Ken is sufficient to repress the expression of vvl in the hindgut, endogenous Ken is also necessary to prevent its activation in the posterior spiracles. It is therefore conceivable that ectopic vvl expression in the posterior spiracles of the ken mutants may be the result of de-repression of endogenous STAT92E activity. Another consequence of these observations is a fine balance that must exist between STAT92E and Ken activities. Apparently, endogenous level of Ken is sufficient to repress vvl, but not other, as yet unidentified, JAK/STAT pathway targets, whose presumable activation by STAT92E is required for posterior spiracle development as the embryos mutant for dome, the receptor of the pathway, show severe spiracle defects. These defects are also observed in the embryos mis-expressing Ken. Though it is possible that the posterior spiracle phenotype caused by higher levels of Ken results from a JAK/STAT pathway independent activity, it seems to be more likely that Ken acts in a dosage dependent manner, and extra Ken is able to further antagonise JAK/STAT pathway target genes. While STAT92E binding sites required for target gene expression have been poorly characterised, the existence of genome data allows the prediction of candidate STAT92E sites present in target genes promoters to be attempted. When a 6kb region containing the putative regulatory domains flanking the vvl locus are examined, only a single potential STAT92E binding site located 825bp upstream of the translational start can be detected. Strikingly, this site also includes a perfect Ken binding sequence. Such an in silico observation, though consistent with both Ken DNA binding assay in vitro and regulation of STAT92E target genes in vivo, however, requires further analysis. The JAK/STAT pathway is implicated in a variety of processes during embryonic and larval development as well as in imago. In each case, stimulation of the same transcription factor results in different developmental outcomes. While many potential mechanisms have been proposed and demonstrated to explain such pleiotropy, the present study indicates that Ken may represent another mechanism, with which signal transduction pathways are controlled. Ken selectively down-regulates a subset of potential target genes and so modifies the transcriptional profile generated by activated STAT92E - a mechanism, which may be partially responsible for differences in the morphogenetic processes elicited by JAK/STAT signalling during development.

Nuclear organisation and epigenetic regulation of gene expression in Dictyostelium discoideum

A series of vectors for the over-expression of tagged proteins in Dictyostelium were designed, constructed and tested. These vectors allow the addition of an N- or C-terminal tag (GFP, RFP, 3xFLAG, 3xHA, 6xMYC and TAP) with an optimized polylinker sequence and no additional amino acid residues at the N or C terminus. Different selectable markers (Blasticidin and gentamicin) are available as well as an extra chromosomal version; these allow copy number and thus expression level to be controlled, as well as allowing for more options with regard to complementation, co- and super-transformation. Finally, the vectors share standardized cloning sites, allowing a gene of interest to be easily transfered between the different versions of the vectors as experimental requirements evolve. The organisation and dynamics of the Dictyostelium nucleus during the cell cycle was investigated. The centromeric histone H3 (CenH3) variant serves to target the kinetochore to the centromeres and thus ensures correct chromosome segregation during mitosis and meiosis. A number of Dictyostelium histone H3-domain containing proteins as GFP-tagged fusions were expressed and it was found that one of them functions as CenH3 in this species. Like CenH3 from some other species, Dictyostelium CenH3 has an extended N-terminal domain with no similarity to any other known proteins. The targeting domain, comprising α-helix 2 and loop 1 of the histone fold is required for targeting CenH3 to centromeres. Compared to the targeting domain of other known and putative CenH3 species, Dictyostelium CenH3 has a shorter loop 1 region. The localisation of a variety of histone modifications and histone modifying enzymes was examined. Using fluorescence in situ hybridisation (FISH) and CenH3 chromatin-immunoprecipitation (ChIP) it was shown that the six telocentric centromeres contain all of the DIRS-1 and most of the DDT-A and skipper transposons. During interphase the centromeres remain attached to the centrosome resulting in a single CenH3 cluster which also contains the putative histone H3K9 methyltransferase SuvA, H3K9me3 and HP1 (heterochromatin protein 1). Except for the centromere cluster and a number of small foci at the nuclear periphery opposite the centromeres, the rest of the nucleus is largely devoid of transposons and heterochromatin associated histone modifications. At least some of the small foci correspond to the distal telomeres, suggesting that the chromosomes are organised in a Rabl-like manner. It was found that in contrast to metazoans, loading of CenH3 onto Dictyostelium centromeres occurs in late G2 phase. Transformation of Dictyostelium with vectors carrying the G418 resistance cassette typically results in the vector integrating into the genome in one or a few tandem arrays of approximately a hundred copies. In contrast, plasmids containing a Blasticidin resistance cassette integrate as single or a few copies. The behaviour of transgenes in the nucleus was examined by FISH, and it was found that low copy transgenes show apparently random distribution within the nucleus, while transgenes with more than approximately 10 copies cluster at or immediately adjacent to the centromeres in interphase cells regardless of the actual integration site along the chromosome. During mitosis the transgenes show centromere-like behaviour, and ChIP experiments show that transgenes contain the heterochromatin marker H3K9me2 and the centromeric histone variant H3v1. This clustering, and centromere-like behaviour was not observed on extrachromosomal transgenes, nor on a line where the transgene had integrated into the extrachromosomal rDNA palindrome. This suggests that it is the repetitive nature of the transgenes that causes the centromere-like behaviour. A Dictyostelium homolog of DET1, a protein largely restricted to multicellular eukaryotes where it has a role in developmental regulation was identified. As in other species Dictyostelium DET1 is nuclear localised. In ChIP experiments DET1 was found to bind the promoters of a number of developmentally regulated loci. In contrast to other species where it is an essential protein, loss of DET1 is not lethal in Dictyostelium, although viability is greatly reduced. Loss of DET1 results in delayed and abnormal development with enlarged aggregation territories. Mutant slugs displayed apparent cell type patterning with a bias towards pre-stalk cell types.

Molekulare Systematik der Gattung Suaeda (Chenopodiaceae) und Evolution des C4-Photosynthesesyndroms

Mit der vorliegenden Arbeit wird eine Synthese aus molekularer Phylogenie und Merkmalsentwicklung für die Unterfamilie Suaedoideae der Chenopodiaceae präsentiert. Anhand von rekonstruierten Stammbäumen aus den Sequenzunterschieden von DNA-Abschnitten zweier unabhängiger Genome (Kern, Chloroplast) werden monophyletische Gruppen herausgearbeitet und die Variabilität der molekularen Merkmale in Bezug auf die bekannten Arten diskutiert. Insgesamt wurden für alle molekularen Analysen 294 Sequenzen ausgewertet. Mit 254 Sequenzen von Arten der Unterfamilie Suaedoideae und 18 Sequenzen von Arten der Unterfamilie Salicornioideae wurde eine vergleichende molekulare Analyse mit den DNA-Regionen ITS, atpB-rbcL und psbB-psbH durchgeführt. Mit der Einbeziehung von ca. 65 bekannten Suaeda-Arten sind damit je nach Artauffassung bis zu 80% aller Arten der Gattung berücksichtigt. Mittels Fossildaten werden die wichtigsten Divergenzereignisse zeitlich fixiert. Die molekularen Stammbäume dienen weiterhin als Grundlage für die Bewertung der Arten sowie ihrer morphologischen und anatomischen Merkmale. Ein wichtiger Aspekt bildet dabei die Entwicklung der C4-Photosynthese mit den zugehörigen Blatttypen. Die folgenden vier Themenkomplexe bzw. Fragestellungen sollten bearbeitet werden (für ausführliche Darstellung vgl. Kap. 1.3): 1. Monophyletische Gruppen und ihre Beziehungen 2. Prinzipien der Evolution und Artbildung in der untersuchten Gruppe, Abgrenzung der Arten. 3. Entwicklung des C4-Photosynthesesyndroms 4. Entwicklung und Variabilität systematisch relevanter Merkmale Die Ergebnisse der auf vergleichender DNA-Sequenzierung beruhenden molekularen Analyse und die Synthese mit weiteren Daten führen als Resultat der vorliegenden Arbeit zusammenfassend zu folgenden Ergebnissen: 1.) Die drei sequenzierten DNA-Regionen ITS, atpB-rbcL und psbB-psbH zeigen im Vergleich eine sehr unterschiedliche Variabilität, ITS ist die variabelste aller Regionen. Die in den Alignments gefundenen Merkmale in Form von Punkt- und Längenmutationen zwischen den Einzelsequenzen waren zahlenmäßig ausreichend und qualitativ geeignet, um mit den drei Verfahren Maximum Parsimony, Maximum Likelihood und Bayes’scher Analyse aussagekräftige und in wesentlichen Aussagen kongruente molekulare Phylogenien zu rekonstruieren. Die Chloroplasten-Daten wurden für die Berechnungen kombiniert. 2.) Die beiden DNA-Regionen ITS und atpB-rbcL evolvieren mit sehr unterschiedlichen Geschwindigkeiten. Die mit der Glättungsmethode PL berechneten durchschnittlichen Substitutionsraten weisen für ITS eine 5,5fach höhere Substitutionsrate gegenüber atpB-rbcL nach. Die ITS-Sequenzen sind daher wesentlich diverser und für einige Sippen, bei identischen atpB-rbcL-Sequenzen, unterschiedlich. Eine direkte Homologisierung von molekularer und morphologischer Variabilität oder die molekulare Limitierung von Arten ist daher nur in einigen Fällen möglich. 3.) Die Gattungen Suaeda, Alexandra und Borszczowia bilden eine monophyletische Gruppe, die den Salicornioideae als Schwestergruppe gegenübersteht. Dies bestätigt die Ergebnisse der Phylogenie der Chenopodiaceae (Kadereit et al. 2003). Im traditionellen Verständnis ist damit die Gattung Suaeda paraphyletisch. Durch taxonomische Umkombination (Schütze et al. 2003. Kapralov et al. 2006) werden die Gattungen Alexandra und Borszczowia in Suaeda eingegliedert, womit das Monophylie-Kriterium für die Gattung wieder erfüllt ist. Die molekularen Daten unterstützen diese nomenklatorische Neubewertung. Der nachfolgend verwendete Gattungsname Suaeda bezieht sich auf die neue Fassung. 4.) Bienertia gehört nicht in die unter 2.) beschriebene monophyletische Gruppe. Die Stellung dieser Gattung ist intermediär. Im ITS-Baum bildet sie die Schwestergruppe zu den Salicornioideae, im Chloroplasten-Baum diejenige zu Suaeda. Da Bienertia aufgrund morphologischer Merkmale Suaeda ähnlicher ist als den Salicornioideae wird sie in die intern neu gegliederte Unterfamilie der Suaedoideae einbezogen, die weitgehend der in Ulbrich (1934) vertretenen Auffassung entspricht. 5.) Suaeda teilt sich in zwei sehr deutlich getrennte Gruppen, die in einer neuen Gliederung als Untergattungen Brezia und Suaeda definiert werden. Die Trennung datiert mit etwa 30 Mio. Jahren in das Oligozän. Zur Untergattung Brezia gehören alle Arten der Sektion Brezia nach bisheriger taxonomischer Auffassung, die Untergattung Suaeda vereint alle übrigen Arten und wird in weitere Sektionen untergliedert. 6.) Die Untergattung bzw. Sektion Brezia zeigt im ITS-Baum eine deutliche Dreigliederung in 3 Subclades, die allerdings von den Chloroplasten-Bäumen nicht verifiziert wird und auch durch morphologische Merkmale nicht zu rechtfertigen ist. Die Subclades der Untergattung Suaeda entsprechen in Grundzügen den bisherigen Sektionen und sind durch synapomorphe Merkmale gekennzeichnet. Für die Gattung Suaeda leiten sich nach monophyletischen Gruppen oder singulären Linien folgende Sektionen ab: Brezia, Alexandra, Borszczowia, Schanginia, Schoberia Salsina (inkl. der früheren Sektionen Limbogermen, Immersa und Macrosuaeda), Suaeda, Physophora und Glauca (neu). 7.) Hybridisierung und Polyploidisierung sind wichtige Prozesse der sympatrischen Artbildung innerhalb der Suaedoideae und waren wahrscheinlich immer mit Arealerweiterungen gekoppelt. Mehrere Linien sind durch Vervielfachung des Chromosomensatzes charakterisiert, wobei auch die recht seltene Form der Dekaploidie erreicht wird. Vieles spricht dafür, dass sowohl Auto- als auch Allopolyploidie eine Rolle spielt. Auf Autopolyplodie beruhen höchstwahrscheinlich die unterschiedlichen Chromosomenrassen von S. corniculata. Durch Inkongruenzen zwischen Chloroplasten- und ITS (Kern)-Stammbäumen konnten einige Arten mit hoher Wahrscheinlichkeit als etablierte, allopolyploide Hybridsippen identifiziert werden (Suaeda kulundensis, S. sibirica). Es ist damit erwiesen, dass die Diversifizierung durch retikulate Evolution beeinflusst wird. 8.) Die Ergebnisse der molekularen Phylogenien belegen sehr deutlich, dass sich die C4-Photosynthese innerhalb der Suaedoideae viermal unabhängig mit vier vollkommen unterschiedlichen Blatttypen entwickelt hat. Dazu gehören zwei Blatttypen mit single cell C4-photosynthesis, ein bis vor kurzem bei Landpflanzen unbekanntes Phänomen. Innerhalb der Sektionen Schoberia, Salsina und Borszczowia datiert die Entstehung in das späte Miozän, bei Bienertia entstand die C4-Photosynthese möglicherweise noch früher. 9.) Als systematisch äußerst bedeutsame Merkmale haben sich die schon von Iljin (1936a) benutzten Pistill-Formen sowie spezifische Blattmerkmale herausgestellt. Mit diesen Merkmalen können Sektionen, die auf monophyletischen Gruppen beruhen, gut definiert werden. Synapomorphe Merkmale des Pistills sind die Zahl und Ausbildung der Narben sowie die Form ihrer Insertion im Ovar. Bei den Blatttypen sind es vor allem die vier histologisch hoch differenzierten C4-Blatttypen, die als gemeinsam abgeleitetes Merkmal rezenter, teilweise aufgespaltener Linien gewertet werden. 10.) Die früher z.T. überbewerteten Merkmale des Perianths (Verwachsungen, Flügel, Anhänge und Umbildungen) können nur zur Beschreibung einzelner Sippen oder lokaler Gruppen herangezogen werden. Ebenso ist das Merkmal der Lebensformen (Therophyten, Chamaephyten) kaum zur Charakterisierung von Gruppen geeignet. Wie das Beispiel Brezia sehr deutlich zeigt, kam es allein in dieser Gruppe mehrfach zur Entwicklung ausdauernder, verholzender Sippen. Der umgekehrte Prozess fand bei der Entstehung der annuellen S. aegyptiaca und S. arcuata statt. Mit Hilfe von DNA-basierten Stammbäumen ist es in der vorliegenden Arbeit möglich geworden, die evolutionäre Geschichte der Gattung nachzuzeichnen und eine auf monophyletischen Gruppen basierende Gliederung abzuleiten. Damit wird eine Grundlage für ein verbessertes Artkonzept der Gattung Suaeda geschaffen. Für die praktische Taxonomie ist dies aber nur teilweise bedeutend. Die morphologisch nachvollziehbare Abgrenzung von Arten bleibt, gerade in den diversen Sektionen Brezia und Salsina, umstritten und kaum nachvollziehbar. Ein Großteil der Arten hat offenbar keine interspezifischen Kompatibilitätsschranken, es handelt sich daher um Morpho- oder Semispecies, möglicherweise sogar nur geographische Rassen, die allerdings mit schnell evolvierenden DNA-Regionen wie ITS differenzierbar sind. Ausgehend von den Ergebnissen der vorliegenden Arbeit verbleibt genügend Raum für weiterführende, vertiefende systematische und populationsbiologische Studien.