Development and Integration of Biocontrol Products in Branched Broomrape (Phelipanche ramosa) management in Tomato

Parasitic weeds of the genera Striga, Orobanche, and Phelipanche pose a severe problem for agriculture because they are difficult to control and are highly destructive to several crops. The present work was carried out during the period October, 2009 to February, 2012 to evaluate the potential of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF) to suppress P. ramosa on tomatoes and to investigate the effects of air-dried powder and aqueous extracts from Euphorbia hirta on germination and haustorium initiation in Phelipanche ramosa. The work was divided into three parts: a survey of the indigenous mycorrhizal flora in Sudan, second, laboratory and greenhouse experiments (conducted in Germany and Sudan) to construct a base for the third part, which was a field trial in Sudan. A survey was performed in 2009 in the White Nile state, Sudan to assess AMF spore densities and root colonization in nine fields planted with 13 different important agricultural crops. In addition, an attempt was made to study the relationship between soil physico-chemical properties and AMF spore density, colonization rate, species richness and other diversity indices. The mean percentage of AMF colonization was 34%, ranging from 19-50%. The spore densities (expressed as per 100 g dry soil) retrieved from the rhizosphere of different crops were relatively high, varying from 344 to 1222 with a mean of 798. There was no correlation between spore densities in soil and root colonization percentage. A total of 45 morphologically classifiable species representing ten genera of AMF were detected with no correlation between the number of species found in a soil sample and the spore density. The most abundant genus was Glomus (20 species). The AMF diversity expressed by the Shannon–Weaver index was highest in sorghum (H\= 2.27) and Jews mallow (H\= 2.13) and lowest in alfalfa (H\= 1.4). With respect to crop species, the genera Glomus and Entrophospora were encountered in almost all crops, except for Entrophospora in alfalfa. Kuklospora was found only in sugarcane and sorghum. The genus Ambispora was recovered only in mint and okra, while mint and onion were the only species on which no Acaulospora was found. The hierarchical cluster analysis based on the similarity among AMF communities with respect to crop species overall showed that species compositions were relatively similar with the highest dissimilarity of about 25% separating three of the mango samples and the four sorghum samples from all other samples. Laboratory experiments studied the influence of root and stem exudates of three tomato varieties infected by three different Glomus species on germination of P. ramosa. Root exudates were collected 21or 42 days after transplanting (DAT) and stem exudates 42 DAT and tested for their effects on germination of P. ramosa seeds in vitro. The tomato varieties studied did not have an effect on either mycorrhizal colonization or Phelipanche germination. Germination in response to exudates from 42 day old mycorrhizal plants was significantly reduced in comparison to non-mycorrhizal controls. Germination of P. ramosa in response to root exudates from 21 day old plants was consistently higher than for 42 day-old plants (F=121.6; P<.0001). Stem diffusates from non-mycorrhizal plants invariably elicited higher germination than diffusates from the corresponding mycorrhizal ones and differences were mostly statistically significant. A series of laboratory experiments was undertaken to investigate the effects of aqueous extracts from Euphorbia hirta on germination, radicle elongation, and haustorium initiation in P. ramosa. P. ramosa seeds conditioned in water and subsequently treated with diluted E. hirta extract (10-25% v/v) displayed considerable germination (47-62%). Increasing extract concentration to 50% or more reduced germination in response to the synthetic germination stimulants GR24 and Nijmegen-1 in a concentration dependent manner. P. ramosa germlings treated with diluted Euphorbia extract (10-75 % v/v) displayed haustorium initiation comparable to 2, 5-Dimethoxy-p-benzoquinon (DMBQ) at 20 µM. Euphorbia extract applied during conditioning reduced haustorium initiation in a concentration dependent manner. E. hirta extract or air-dried powder, applied to soil, induced considerable P. ramosa germination. Pot experiments were undertaken in a glasshouse at the University of Kassel, Germany, to investigate the effects of P. ramosa seed bank on tomato growth parameters. Different Phelipanche seed banks were established by mixing the parasite seeds (0 - 32 mg) with the potting medium in each pot. P. ramosa reduced all tomato growth parameters measured and the reduction progressively increased with seed bank. Root and total dry matter accumulation per tomato plant were most affected. P. ramosa emergence, number of tubercles, and tubercle dry weight increased with the seed bank and were, invariably, maximal with the highest seed bank. Another objective was to determine if different AM fungi differ in their effects on the colonization of tomatoes with P. ramosa and the performance of P. ramosa after colonization. Three AMF species viz. GIomus intraradices, Glomus mosseae and Glomus Sprint® were used in this study. For the infection, P. ramosa seeds (8 mg) were mixed with the top 5 cm soil in each pot. No mycorrhizal colonization was detected in un-inoculated control plants. P. ramosa infested, mycorrhiza inoculated tomato plants had significantly lower AMF colonization compared to plants not infested with P. ramosa. Inoculation with G. intraradices, G. mosseae and Glomus Sprint® reduced the number of emerged P. ramosa plants by 29.3, 45.3 and 62.7% and the number of tubercles by 22.2, 42 and 56.8%, respectively. Mycorrhizal root colonization was positively correlated with number of branches and total dry matter of tomatoes. Field experiments on tomato undertaken in 2010/12 were only partially successful because of insect infestations which resulted in the complete destruction of the second run of the experiment. The effects of the inoculation with AMF, the addition of 10 t ha-1 filter mud (FM), an organic residues from sugar processing and 36 or 72 kg N ha-1 on the infestation of tomatoes with P. ramosa were assessed. In un-inoculated control plants, AMF colonization ranged between 13.4 to 22.1% with no significant differences among FM and N treatments. Adding AMF or FM resulted in a significant increase of branching in the tomato plants with no additive effects. Dry weights were slightly increased through FM application when no N was applied and significantly at 36 kg N ha-1. There was no effect of FM on the time until the first Phelipanche emerged while AMF and N application interacted. Especially AMF inoculation resulted in a tendency to delayed P. ramosa emergence. The marketable yield was extremely low due to the strong fruit infestation with insects mainly whitefly Bemisia tabaci and tomato leaf miner (Tuta absoluta). Tomatoes inoculated with varied mycorrhiza species displayed different response to the insect infestation, as G. intraradices significantly reduced the infestation, while G. mosseae elicited higher insect infestation. The results of the present thesis indicate that there may be a potential of developing management strategies for P. ramosa targeting the pre-attachment stage namely germination and haustorial initiation using plant extracts. However, ways of practical use need to be developed. If such treatments can be combined with AMF inoculation also needs to be investigated. Overall, it will require a systematic approach to develop management tools that are easily applicable and affordable to Sudanese farmers. It is well-known that proper agronomical practices such as the design of an optimum crop rotation in cropping systems, reduced tillage, promotion of cover crops, the introduction of multi-microbial inoculants, and maintenance of proper phosphorus levels are advantageous if the mycorrhiza protection method is exploited against Phelipanche ramosa infestation. Without the knowledge about the biology of the parasitic weeds by the farmers and basic preventive measures such as hygiene and seed quality control no control strategy will be successful, however.

Praxisrelevante Auswirkungen des Vorschlages für eine EU-Verordnung KOM/2000/7/final, 2000/0212(COD) des europäischen Parlaments und des Rates von der Kommission der Europäischen Gemeinschaften auf die Verkehrsplanung des öffentlichen Personennahverkehrs

Die Arbeit behandelt den Vorschlag für eine EU-Verordnung KOM/2000/7/final, 2000/0212(COD) des europäischen Parlaments und des Rates von der Kommission der Europäischen Gemeinschaften als Grundlage einer Marktöffnungsverordnung und welche Veränderungen sich dadurch in Deutschland einstellen werden. Ausschreibungen von Verkehrsleistungen werden zunehmen. Die Ausschreibungsarten werden sich in ländlichen Regionen von denen in Verkehrszentren unterscheiden. In der Region werden sich Bedarfslösungen stärker durchsetzen. Kürzungen von Verkehrsleistungen werden hier stärker ausfallen als in den Zentren und damit zu einem kleineren Leistungsvolumen führen. Aufgrund des geringen Leistungsumfangs gibt es weniger Interessenten. Bei Standardausschreibungen werden deshalb auch häufig die Varianten der beschränkten oder die freihändige Vergabe gewählt. Funktionale Ausschreibungen haben nur eine untergeordnete Bedeutung. In den Verkehrszentren sind die Lose größer und damit für viele Anbieter interessant. Die Verkehrszusatzleistungen sind zudem komplexer. Standardausschreibungen in öffentlicher Vergabeart werden sich hier vermutlich als Norm durchsetzen. Die VOL/A wird sicherlich ihre Bedeutung und ihren dafür notwendigen Regelungsumfang in Deutschland als deutsches oder als europäisches Recht behalten. Ob der empfehlende Charakter der DIN EN 13816 Norm „ÖPNV: Definition, Festlegung von Leistungszielen und Messung der Servicequalität“ erhalten werden kann und nicht als Steuerungselement zur Standardisierung im ÖPNV beitragen wird, ist dabei zu bezweifeln. Durch diese Wettbewerbspflicht wird der Aufgabenträger zum Besteller von Verkehrsleistungen. Damit geht die Verkehrsplanung in die Verantwortung des Aufgabenträgers über und gerät stärker in den Einflussbereich der Politik. Die strategisch abstrakte und die konkrete Verkehrsplanung wachsen für den Normfall der Standardausschreibung zusammen. Die Hoffnung auf eine bessere Netzintegration und eine Standardisierung des ÖPNV Angebots und der ÖPNV Qualität entsteht. Es entwickelt sich dadurch aber auch die Gefahr der Abhängigkeit des Nahverkehrsangebots von der derzeitigen Haushaltslage oder der Interessenlage der Politik. Kontinuität in Angebot und Qualität werden zu erklärten Planungszielen. Der Verkehrsplaner auf der Bestellerseite muss die Planung in Ausschreibungsunterlagen umsetzen. Dies erfordert erweiterte Kompetenzen in den Bereichen Betriebswirtschaft, Logistik, Jura, Informatik und Führungskompetenzen. Ausbildende Institutionen müssen darauf bereits im Vorfeld der Umsetzung reagieren. Durch die zeitliche Verzögerung der Umsetzung der Planung durch die Ausschreibungsschritte sind in der Verkehrsplanung längere Planungsvorlaufzeiten einzukalkulieren. Vorausschauender zu planen, wird dabei wichtiger. Auch eventuelle Fehler in der Planung sind nicht mehr so einfach zu korrigieren. Durch den gestiegenen Einsatz von Technologien in den Fahrzeugen besteht für den Verkehrsplaner dafür häufiger die Möglichkeit, Planungsänderungen auf ihre Wirksamkeit im Hinblick auf Attraktivität für den Fahrgast anhand von den ermittelten Fahrgastzahlen zu kontrollieren. Dasselbe gilt auch für Marketing- und Vertriebsmaßnahmen, wie für die Tarifpolitik. Die Zahlen stehen nicht nur für diese Rückkopplung zur Verfügung, sondern dienen auch als Planungsgrundlage für zukünftige Maßnahmen. Dem Planer stehen konkretere Zahlen für die Planung zur Verfügung. Ein Aspekt, der aufgrund der Sanktionsmaßnahmen bei Ausschreibungen an Bedeutung gewinnen wird, ist die Möglichkeit, Qualität von Verkehrsleistungen möglichst objektiv beurteilen zu können. Praxisrelevante Auswirkungen auf die Verkehrsplanung des öffentlichen Personennahverkehrs ergeben sich hauptsächlich durch die gestiegene Komplexität in der Planung selbst und den dadurch unverzichtbaren gewordenen Einsatz von Computerunterstützung. Die Umsetzung in Ausschreibungsunterlagen der Planung und die Kontrolle stellen neue Elemente im Aufgabenbereich des Verkehrsplaners dar und erfordern damit breiter ausgelegte Kernkompetenzen. Es werden mehr Verkehrsplaner mit breiterer Ausbildung benötigt werden. Diese Arbeit hat aufgezeigt, dass sich mit der Integration des Ausschreibungsgedankens in den Ablauf der Verkehrsplanung eine sprunghafte Entwicklung in der Planungstätigkeit ergeben wird. Aufgrund der in Zukunft steigenden Qualität und Quantität der Planungsgrundlagen und der ebenfalls gestiegenen Ansprüche an die Bewertungsparameter ergeben sich Veränderungen und neue Anforderungen auf diesem Gebiet, die in erster Linie für die Hochschulen und andere ausbildende Einrichtungen, aber auch für die Verkehrsplanung unterstützende Industrie.

Gender and Space in Tehran

Abstract: This dissertation generally concentrates on the relationships between “gender” and “space” in the present time of urban life in capital city of Tehran. “Gender” as a changing social construct, differentiated within societies and through time, studied this time by investigation on “gender attitude” or “gender identity” means attitudes towards “gender” issues regarding Tehran residences. “Space” as a concept integrated from physical and social constituents investigated through focus on “spatial attitude” means attitudes towards using “living spaces” including private space of “house”, semi private semi public space of neighborhood and finally public spaces of the city. “Activities and practices” in space concentrated instead of “physical” space; this perspective to “space” discussed as the most justified implication of “space” in this debate regarding current situations in city of Tehran. Under a systematic approach, the interactions and interconnections between “gender” and “space” as two constituent variables of social organization investigated by focus on the different associations presented between different “gender identities” and their different “spatial identities”; in fact, “spatial identity” manifests “gender identity” and in opposite direction, “spatial identity” influences to construction of “gender identity”. The hypotheses of case study in Tehran defined as followed: • “Gender identity” is reflected on “spatial identity”. Various “gender identities” in Tehran present different perspectives of “space” or they identify “space” by different values. • As “gender identity” internalizes patriarchal oppression, it internalizes associated “spatial” oppression too. • Within the same social class, different “gender identities” related to men and women, present interconnected qualities, compared with “gender identities” related to men or women of different social classes. This situation could be found in the “spatial” perspectives of different groups of men and women too. • Following the upper hypotheses, “spatial” oppression differs among social classes of Tehran living in different parts of this city. This research undertook a qualitative study in Tehran by interviewing with different parents of both young daughter and son regarding their attitudes towards gender issues from one side and activities and behaviors of their children in different spaces from the other side. Results of case study indicated the parallel changes of parents’ attitudes towards “gender” and “spatial” issues; it means strong connection between “gender” and “space”. It revealed association of “equal” spatial attitudes with “open, neutral” gender attitudes, and also the association of “biased, unequal” spatial identities with “conservative patriarchal” gender identities. It was cleared too that this variable concept – gender space - changes by “sex”; mothers comparing fathers presented more equitable notions towards “gender spatial” issues. It changes too by “social class” and “educational level”, that means “gender spatial” identity getting more open equitable among more educated people of middle and upper classes. “Breadwinning status in the family” also presents its effect on the changes of “gender spatial” identity so participant breadwinners in the family expressed relatively more equitable notions comparing householders and housekeepers. And finally, “gender spatial” identity changes through “place” in the city and regarding South – North line of the city. The illustration of changes of “gender spatial” identity from “open” to “conservative” among society indicated not only vertical variation across social classes, furthermore the horizontal changing among each social class. These results also confirmed hypotheses while made precision on the third one regarding variable of sex. More investigations pointed to some inclusive spatial attitudes throughout society penetrated to different groups of “gender identities”, to “opens” as to “conservatives”, also to groups between them, by two opposite features; first kind, conservative biased spatial practices in favor of patriarchal gender relations and the second, progressive neutral actions in favor of equal gender relations. While the major reason for the inclusive conservative practices was referred to the social insecurity for women, the second neutral ones associated to more formal & safer spaces of the city. In conclusion, while both trends are associated deeply with the important issues of “sex” & “body” in patriarchal thoughts, still strong, they are the consequences of the transitional period of social change in macro level, and the challenges involved regarding interactions between social orders, between old system of patriarchy, the traditional biased “gender spatial” relations and the new one of equal relations. The case study drew an inhomogeneous illustration regarding gender spatial aspects of life in Tehran, the opposite groups of “open” and “conservative”, and the large group of “semi open semi conservative” between them. In macro perspective it presents contradicted social groups according their general life styles; they are the manifestations of challenging trends towards tradition and modernity in Iranian society. This illustration while presents unstable social situations, necessitates probing solutions for social integration; exploring the directions could make heterogeneous social groups close in the way they think and the form they live in spaces. Democratic approaches like participatory development planning might be helpful for the city in its way to more solidarity and sustainability regarding its social spatial – gender as well – development, in macro levels of social spatial planning and in micro levels of physical planning, in private space of house and in public spaces of the city.

Integration der strategischen Planung in die Haushaltsplanung einer Kommune

Eine effektive, effiziente und wirkungsorientierte kommunalpolitische Arbeit stellt hohe Anforderungen an Politik und Verwaltung. Trotz zahlreicher erfolgsversprechender Ansätze ist der aktuelle Status quo ernüchternd. Schwerpunkt der Dissertation ist deshalb die Entwicklung eines praxistauglichen Konzeptes zur Integration der strategischen Planung in die Haushaltsplanung einer Kommune mit dem Ziel einer nachhaltigen Verbesserung der strategischen Steuerung. Eine ergänzende ökonomische Funktionsanalyse von beteiligten Rechtsfiguren erweitert dabei die klassisch wirtschaftstheoretische Betrachtungsweise um sozialwissenschaftliche Aspekte, die im Zusammenspiel von Institutionen eine wichtige Rolle spielen. Der konzipierte Ansatz kommt, durch die Fokussierung auf das öffentliche Interesse, einem partizipativen und transparenten Idealbild von Steuerung im kommunalen Bereich auf der Basis der New Public Management Bewegung sehr nahe und könnte helfen der verstärkt festzustellenden Politikverdrossenheit entgegen zu wirken.