Identität der Identität und Differenz von Raum und Zeit bei Schelling mit Blick auf die Relativitäts- und Quantentheorie

In genannter Schrift soll versucht werden, einen aus der Kantschen und Fichteschen Erkenntnistheorie erfolgenden allgemeinen Zusammenhang herzustellen zwischen dem kategorialen Denken hinsichtlich Denken und Anschauen und dem Problem von Raum und Zeit, wie es sich mit der Entwicklung der modernen Physik durch die Relativitäts- und Quantentheorie deutlich aufdrängt. Es wird gezeigt, dass F.W.J. Schelling grundlegende Lösungsansätze hierzu bereitstellt, welche auf dem Gebiet der Logik, der Epistomologie und Naturphilosophie in der Nachfolge von Kant, Fichte und Spinoza stattfinden, jedoch weit über seine Zeit hinausreichen. Diese Ansätze werden von Schelling selbst unter den Begriff einer „Identität der Identität und Differenz“ gesetzt. In der genannten Dissertation sollen Denkbewegungen dargestellt werden, die eine Anbindung der Schellingschen Naturphilosophie an die sich mit den genannten unterschiedlichen Theorien bzw. deren problematischer Vereinheitlichung beschäftigende Physik zu erreichen versuchen. Der formelle Aufbau der Arbeit gehorcht der inhaltlichen Struktur dieser Anbindungsbemühung, insofern unterstellt wird, dass diese rein nur aus einem dialektischen Denken (sowohl in der Erkenntnistheorie, als auch Naturphilosophie) heraus überhaupt erreicht werden kann. So werden sowohl die Tätigkeiten des Verstandes als die des Anschauens in ihrem Zusammenspiel, wie aber auch die Verstandes- und Anschauungstätigkeiten an sich selbst betrachtet, dialektisch vermittelt dargestellt, was innerhalb der formellen Deduktion der Kantschen Kategorien und der korrespondierenden Anschauungsformen selbst durchgeführt wird. Schellings Intention seines späteren Denkens, die philosophischen Probleme auf die Geschichtlichkeit, die Freiheit und den Erfahrungsbezug des Menschen zu beziehen, wird nicht als Gegenposition zu den frühen Ansätze der Logik und Transzendentalphilosophie gedeutet, sondern selbst als Endpunkt einer dialektischen Entwicklung des Schellingschen Denkens gefasst. Dies ergibt folgenden formellen Aufbau der Arbeit: Zunächst wird in einem einleitenden Abschnitt über die Aufgabe der Philosophie selbst und ihrer Darstellbarkeit im Zusammenhang mit der Hegel-Schelling-Kontroverse gearbeitet, um Schelling als adäquaten Bezugspunkt für unsere moderne Diskussion auf der methodischen und sprachlichen Ebene einzuführen. Im Hauptteil werden die wesentlichen Momente der für Schelling wichtigen Transzendentalphilosophie der Jahrhundertwende dargestellt, um diese dann an den späteren phänomenologisch-epistemologischen Ansätzen zu spiegeln. Von der theoretischen Seite kommend werden die Hauptmomente der praktischen Philosophie Schellings aufgezeigt, um dann den Menschen in einem dritten Schritt Symbol der Ununterschiedenheit von logischen und freien Tätigkeiten bzw. von Leib und Seele zu deuten. Diese Resultate bleiben zunächst einmal liegen, um in dem zweiten Hauptabschnitt auf grundlegende naturphilosophische Voraussetzungen und Resultate derjenigen Physik einzugehen, welche die prinzipiellen Verständnisschwierigkeiten der Physik des frühen 20. Jahrhundert in die heutige kosmologische und atomistische Diskussion mitbringt. Der dritte Hauptabschnitt stellt den Versuch dar, Schellings Naturphilosophie an symptomatische Anschauungen der Physik heranzuführen, um ihn als zeitgenössischen Kritiker einzuführen, wie aber auch als einen, der bestimmte moderne naturwissenschaftliche bzw. physikalische Resultate im Besonderen vorwegzunehmen vermochte. Die Einführung seiner Philosophie in aktuelle naturphilosophische Diskussion wird als unabdingbare Voraussetzung zu einem zukünftigen Verständnis des Natur, des Kosmos´ und des Menschen gefordert.

Gender and Space in Tehran

Abstract: This dissertation generally concentrates on the relationships between “gender” and “space” in the present time of urban life in capital city of Tehran. “Gender” as a changing social construct, differentiated within societies and through time, studied this time by investigation on “gender attitude” or “gender identity” means attitudes towards “gender” issues regarding Tehran residences. “Space” as a concept integrated from physical and social constituents investigated through focus on “spatial attitude” means attitudes towards using “living spaces” including private space of “house”, semi private semi public space of neighborhood and finally public spaces of the city. “Activities and practices” in space concentrated instead of “physical” space; this perspective to “space” discussed as the most justified implication of “space” in this debate regarding current situations in city of Tehran. Under a systematic approach, the interactions and interconnections between “gender” and “space” as two constituent variables of social organization investigated by focus on the different associations presented between different “gender identities” and their different “spatial identities”; in fact, “spatial identity” manifests “gender identity” and in opposite direction, “spatial identity” influences to construction of “gender identity”. The hypotheses of case study in Tehran defined as followed: • “Gender identity” is reflected on “spatial identity”. Various “gender identities” in Tehran present different perspectives of “space” or they identify “space” by different values. • As “gender identity” internalizes patriarchal oppression, it internalizes associated “spatial” oppression too. • Within the same social class, different “gender identities” related to men and women, present interconnected qualities, compared with “gender identities” related to men or women of different social classes. This situation could be found in the “spatial” perspectives of different groups of men and women too. • Following the upper hypotheses, “spatial” oppression differs among social classes of Tehran living in different parts of this city. This research undertook a qualitative study in Tehran by interviewing with different parents of both young daughter and son regarding their attitudes towards gender issues from one side and activities and behaviors of their children in different spaces from the other side. Results of case study indicated the parallel changes of parents’ attitudes towards “gender” and “spatial” issues; it means strong connection between “gender” and “space”. It revealed association of “equal” spatial attitudes with “open, neutral” gender attitudes, and also the association of “biased, unequal” spatial identities with “conservative patriarchal” gender identities. It was cleared too that this variable concept – gender space - changes by “sex”; mothers comparing fathers presented more equitable notions towards “gender spatial” issues. It changes too by “social class” and “educational level”, that means “gender spatial” identity getting more open equitable among more educated people of middle and upper classes. “Breadwinning status in the family” also presents its effect on the changes of “gender spatial” identity so participant breadwinners in the family expressed relatively more equitable notions comparing householders and housekeepers. And finally, “gender spatial” identity changes through “place” in the city and regarding South – North line of the city. The illustration of changes of “gender spatial” identity from “open” to “conservative” among society indicated not only vertical variation across social classes, furthermore the horizontal changing among each social class. These results also confirmed hypotheses while made precision on the third one regarding variable of sex. More investigations pointed to some inclusive spatial attitudes throughout society penetrated to different groups of “gender identities”, to “opens” as to “conservatives”, also to groups between them, by two opposite features; first kind, conservative biased spatial practices in favor of patriarchal gender relations and the second, progressive neutral actions in favor of equal gender relations. While the major reason for the inclusive conservative practices was referred to the social insecurity for women, the second neutral ones associated to more formal & safer spaces of the city. In conclusion, while both trends are associated deeply with the important issues of “sex” & “body” in patriarchal thoughts, still strong, they are the consequences of the transitional period of social change in macro level, and the challenges involved regarding interactions between social orders, between old system of patriarchy, the traditional biased “gender spatial” relations and the new one of equal relations. The case study drew an inhomogeneous illustration regarding gender spatial aspects of life in Tehran, the opposite groups of “open” and “conservative”, and the large group of “semi open semi conservative” between them. In macro perspective it presents contradicted social groups according their general life styles; they are the manifestations of challenging trends towards tradition and modernity in Iranian society. This illustration while presents unstable social situations, necessitates probing solutions for social integration; exploring the directions could make heterogeneous social groups close in the way they think and the form they live in spaces. Democratic approaches like participatory development planning might be helpful for the city in its way to more solidarity and sustainability regarding its social spatial – gender as well – development, in macro levels of social spatial planning and in micro levels of physical planning, in private space of house and in public spaces of the city.

Understanding Recreational Services of Urban Riverfront Space for Planning Purposes

In the process of urbanization, natural and semi-natural landscapes are increasingly cherished as open space and recreational resource. Urban rivers are part of this kind of resource and thus play an important role in managing urban resilience and health. Employing the example of Tianjin, this doctoral dissertation research aims at learning to understand how to plan and design for the interface zones between urban water courses and for the land areas adjacent to such water courses. This research also aims at learning how to link waterfront space with other urban space in order to make a recreational space system for the benefit of people. Five questions of this dissertation are: 1) what is the role of rivers in spatial and open space planning? 2) What are the human needs regarding outdoor open space? 3) How do river and water front spatial structures affect people's recreational activities? 4) How to define the recreational service of urban river and waterfront open space? 5) How might answering these question change planning and design of urban open space? Quantitative and qualitative empirical approaches were combined in this study for which literature review and theoretical explorations provide the basis. Empirical investigations were conducted in the city of Tianjin. The quantitative approach includes conducting 267 quantitative interviews, and the qualitative approach includes carrying out field observations and mappings. GIS served to support analysis and visualization of empirical information that was generated through this study. By responding to the five research questions, findings and lessons include the following: 1) In the course of time rivers have gained importance in all levels and scales of spatial planning and decision making. Regarding the development of ecological networks, mainly at national scale, rivers are considered significant linear elements. Regarding regional and comprehensive development, river basins and watersheds are often considered as the structural link for strategic ecological, economic, social and recreational planning. For purposes of urban planning, particularly regarding recreational services in cities, the distribution of urban open spaces often follows the structure of river systems. 2) For the purpose of classifying human recreational needs that relate to outdoor open space Maslow's hierarchy of human needs serves as theoretical basis. The classes include geographical, safety, physiological, social and aesthetic need. These classes serve as references while analyzing river and waterfront open space and other kinds of open space. 3) Regarding the question how river and waterfront spatial structures might affect people's recreational activities, eight different landscape units were identified and compared in the case study area. Considering the thermal conditions of Tianjin, one of these landscape units was identified as affording the optimal spatial arrangement which mostly meets recreational needs. The size and the shape of open space, and the plants present in an open space have been observed as being most relevant regarding recreational activities. 4) Regarding the recreational service of urban river and waterfront open space the results of this research suggest that the recreational service is felt less intensively as the distances between water 183 front and open space user’s places of residence are increasing. As a method for estimating this ‘Service Distance Effect’ the following formula may be used: Y = a*ebx. In this equation Y means the ‘Service Distance’ between homes and open space, and X means the percentage of the people who live within this service distance. Coefficient "a" represents the distance of the residential area nearest to the water front. The coefficient "b" is a comprehensive capability index that refers to the size of the available and suitable recreational area. 5) Answers found to the questions above have implications for the planning and design of urban open space. The results from the quantitative study of recreational services of waterfront open space were applied to the assessment of river-based open space systems. It is recommended that such assessments might be done employing the network analysis function available with any GIS. In addition, several practical planning and designing suggestions are made that would help remedy any insufficient base for satisfying recreational needs. The understanding of recreational need is considered helpful for the proposing planning and designing ideas and for the changing of urban landscapes. In the course of time Tianjin's urban water system has shrunk considerably. At the same time rivers and water courses have shaped Tianjin's urban structure in noticeable ways. In the process of urbanization water has become increasingly important to the citizens and their everyday recreations. Much needs to be changed in order to improve recreational opportunities and to better provide for a livable city, most importantly when considering the increasing number of old people. Suggestions made that are based on results of this study, might be implemented in Tianjin. They are 1) to promote the quality of the waterfront open space and to make all linear waterfront area accessible recreational spaces. Then, 2), it is advisable to advocate the concept of green streets and to combine green streets with river open space in order to form an everyday recreational network. And 3) any sound urban everyday recreational service made cannot rely on only urban rivers; the whole urban structure needs to be improved, including adding small open space and optimize the form of urban communities, finally producing a multi-functional urban recreational network.

Time Discretization of the SST-generalized Navier-Stokes Equations: Positive and Negative Results

In the theory of the Navier-Stokes equations, the proofs of some basic known results, like for example the uniqueness of solutions to the stationary Navier-Stokes equations under smallness assumptions on the data or the stability of certain time discretization schemes, actually only use a small range of properties and are therefore valid in a more general context. This observation leads us to introduce the concept of SST spaces, a generalization of the functional setting for the Navier-Stokes equations. It allows us to prove (by means of counterexamples) that several uniqueness and stability conjectures that are still open in the case of the Navier-Stokes equations have a negative answer in the larger class of SST spaces, thereby showing that proof strategies used for a number of classical results are not sufficient to affirmatively answer these open questions. More precisely, in the larger class of SST spaces, non-uniqueness phenomena can be observed for the implicit Euler scheme, for two nonlinear versions of the Crank-Nicolson scheme, for the fractional step theta scheme, and for the SST-generalized stationary Navier-Stokes equations. As far as stability is concerned, a linear version of the Euler scheme, a nonlinear version of the Crank-Nicolson scheme, and the fractional step theta scheme turn out to be non-stable in the class of SST spaces. The positive results established in this thesis include the generalization of classical uniqueness and stability results to SST spaces, the uniqueness of solutions (under smallness assumptions) to two nonlinear versions of the Euler scheme, two nonlinear versions of the Crank-Nicolson scheme, and the fractional step theta scheme for general SST spaces, the second order convergence of a version of the Crank-Nicolson scheme, and a new proof of the first order convergence of the implicit Euler scheme for the Navier-Stokes equations. For each convergence result, we provide conditions on the data that guarantee the existence of nonstationary solutions satisfying the regularity assumptions needed for the corresponding convergence theorem. In the case of the Crank-Nicolson scheme, this involves a compatibility condition at the corner of the space-time cylinder, which can be satisfied via a suitable prescription of the initial acceleration.